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The impacts of deep seabed mining on people have not been sufficiently researched or addressed. Using a legitimacy framework, we discuss the social-equity dimensions of this emerging industry in the ocean commons.

Resource allocation is a fundamental and challenging component of common pool resource governance, particularly transboundary fisheries. We highlight the growing importance of allocation in fisheries governance, comparing approaches of the five tuna Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (tRFMOs). We find all tRFMOs except one have defined resources for allocation and outlined principles to guide allocation based on equity, citizenship, and legitimacy. However, all fall short of applying these principles in assigning fish resources. Most tRFMOs rely on historical catch or effort, while equity principles rarely determine dedicated rights. Further, the current system of annual negotiations reduces certainty, trust, and transparency, counteracting many benefits asserted by rights-based management proponents. We suggest one means of gaining traction may be to shift conversations from allocative rights toward weighting of principles already identified by most tRFMOs. Incorporating principles into resource allocation remains a major opportunity, with important implications for current and future access to fish. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s13280-020-01371-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Background:In Ontario, there are approximately 66,000 adults living with a diagnosis of intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD). These individuals are nearly twice as likely to experience an injury compared to the general population. Falls are an important contributor to injuries in persons with IDD and in the general population, and are consistently found to be the leading cause of traumatic brain injury (TBI). There is currently no literature that quantitatively examines TBI among persons with IDD. The purpose of this study was to compare the risk of TBI for adults with and without IDD in Ontario over time and by demographic information.Methods:Using administrative health databases, two main cohorts were identified: (1) adults with IDD, and (2) a random 10% sample of adults without IDD. Within each cohort, annual crude and adjusted incidence of TBI were calculated among unique individuals for each fiscal year from April 1, 2002 to March 31, 2017.Results:Over the 15-year study period, the average annual adjusted incidence of TBI was approximately 2.8 new cases per 1000 among Ontario adults with IDD, compared to approximately 1.53 per 1000 among those without IDD. In both cohorts, a higher proportion of TBI cases were younger (19–29 years) and male.Conclusions:During the study period, persons with IDD experienced a significantly higher risk of TBI compared to the general population indicating the possibility, and need, for targeted TBI prevention.

Climate-driven redistribution of tuna threatens to disrupt the economies of Pacific Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and sustainable management of the world’s largest tuna fishery. Here we show that by 2050, under a high greenhouse gas emissions scenario (RCP 8.5), the total biomass of three tuna species in the waters of ten Pacific SIDS could decline by an average of 13% (range = −5% to −20%) due to a greater proportion of fish occurring in the high seas. The potential implications for Pacific Island economies in 2050 include an average decline in purse-seine catch of 20% (range = −10% to −30%), an average annual loss in regional tuna-fishing access fees of US$90 million (range = −US$40 million to –US$140 million) and reductions in government revenue of up to 13% (range = −8% to −17%) for individual Pacific SIDS. Redistribution of tuna under a lower-emissions scenario (RCP 4.5) is projected to reduce the purse-seine catch from the waters of Pacific SIDS by an average of only 3% (range = −12% to +9%), indicating that even greater reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, in line with the Paris Agreement, would provide a pathway to sustainability for tuna-dependent Pacific Island economies. An additional pathway involves Pacific SIDS negotiating within the regional fisheries management organization to maintain the present-day benefits they receive from tuna, regardless of the effects of climate change on the distribution of the fish. Climate change will alter the distribution of tuna, impacting the economies of Pacific Small Island Developing States. This study finds that greater greenhouse gas emissions will worsen these impacts.

Author(s): Gaynor, Kaitlyn M; Brashares, Justin S; Gregory, Gillian H; Kurz, David J; Seto, Katherine L; Withey, Lauren S; Fiorella, Kathryn J

Multisensor satellite technologies reveal large-scale illegal fishing in some of the world’s least monitored waters., Illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing threatens resource sustainability and equity. A major challenge with such activity is that most fishing vessels do not broadcast their positions and are “dark” in public monitoring systems. Combining four satellite technologies, we identify widespread illegal fishing by dark fleets in the waters between the Koreas, Japan, and Russia. We find >900 vessels of Chinese origin in 2017 and >700 in 2018 fished illegally in North Korean waters, catching an estimated amount of Todarodes pacificus approximating that of Japan and South Korea combined (>164,000 metric tons worth >$440 million). We further find ~3000 small-scale North Korean vessels fished, mostly illegally, in Russian waters. These results can inform independent oversight of transboundary fisheries and foreshadow a new era in satellite monitoring of fisheries.

Author(s): Fiorella, Kathryn J; Coffin-Schmitt, Jeanne; Gaynor, Kaitlyn M; Gregory, Gillian H; Rasolofoson, Ranaivo; Seto, Katherine L

Transparency is one of the most influential themes in global environmental governance, however it has received limited treatment in transboundary fisheries. Transparency is essential to ensure officials are held accountable for the use of public resources and the achievement of environmental objectives, such as sustainable harvest. Here, we use a case study approach to assess transparency in transboundary fisheries governance, evaluating transshipment in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean, one of the world's most abundant and lucrative fisheries. Transshipment at sea occurs extensively in these fisheries, but often lacks strong monitoring and oversight, and has been associated with illegal or illicit activities. However, actors that rely heavily on transshipment at sea maintain that it can be a legitimate part of the fish commodity chain, under effective regulation. Here we assess whether at-sea transshipment in one of the most regulated and visible fisheries in the world is traceable, verifiable, and legal. Using AIS data and qualitative information from regional and sub-regional sources, we find that 68% of observed potential transshipments remain unsubstantiated even after triangulating with diverse data. We identify three primary areas for improving traceability and transparency of transshipment at sea in the WCPO, and suggest that transparency is ultimately hindered less by technical or administrative constraints, but by tensions between the actors and objectives within management institutions. Increased transparency, and a focus on the underlying dynamics that inhibit it, is necessary to ensure effective conservation and management of transboundary fish stocks, now and in the future.

Recognized as an emerging global crisis in the mid-1990s, the “nutrition transition” is marked by a shift to Western diets, dominated by highly processed, sugar-sweetened, and high caloric foods. Occurring in parallel to these health transitions are dramatic shifts in the natural systems that underlie food availability and access. Traditionally, environmental degradation and ecosystem change, and processes of nutritional transition, though often collinear and potentially causally linked, have been addressed in isolation. Food systems represent an emblematic social-ecological system, as both cultivated and wild foods are directly reliant on natural ecosystems and their processes. While healthy ecosystems are a necessary precondition of food production, they are not themselves sufficient to ensure continued benefits from local food systems. Mediating between food production and nutritional security are myriad governance and market institutions that shape differential access to food resources. Moreover, globalization and urbanization may shift communities from non-market to market-based economies, with profound implications for local environments and food systems. Specifically, we argue that it is this feedback between coupled socioeconomic and natural dynamics within food systems that reinforces specific nutritional outcomes, and may result in a social-ecological trap. Here, we use the case of reef-based food systems globally, paying particular attention to the Pacific to showcase social-ecological traps present in global food systems, and to illustrate how such traps lead to the acceleration of the nutrition transition. Improving both nutritional and environmental outcomes of food systems requires understanding the underlying drivers of each, and how they interact and reinforce each other. Only in recognizing these interactions and coupled dynamics will economic, governance, and environmental policies be positioned to address these food system challenges in an integrated fashion.

Inaccurate or incomplete diagnosis of the root causes of overfishing can lead to misguided and ineffective fisheries policies and programmes. The “Malthusian overfishing narrative” suggests that overfishing is driven by too many fishers chasing too few fish and that fishing effort grows proportionately to human population growth, requiring policy interventions that reduce fisher access, the number of fishers, or the human population. By neglecting other drivers of overfishing that may be more directly related to fishing pressure and provide more tangible policy levers for achieving fisheries sustainability, Malthusian overfishing relegates blame to regions of the world with high population growth rates, while consumers, corporations and political systems responsible for these other mediating drivers remain unexamined. While social–ecological systems literature has provided alternatives to the Malthusian paradigm, its focus on institutions and organized social units often fails to address fundamental issues of power and politics that have inhibited the design and implementation of effective fisheries policy. Here, we apply a political ecology lens to unpack Malthusian overfishing and, relying upon insights derived from the social sciences, reconstruct the narrative incorporating four exemplar mediating drivers: technology and innovation, resource demand and distribution, marginalization and equity, and governance and management. We argue that a more nuanced understanding of such factors will lead to effective and equitable fisheries policies and programmes, by identifying a suite of policy levers designed to address the root causes of overfishing in diverse contexts.

Background and purpose Virtual patients (VP) offer an enhanced learning experience for students to assume the role of health professional and make therapeutic decisions in a simulated environment. While VPs are valued by students and offer benefits to the learner, little is known about how best to implement them in pharmacy education curricula. The purpose of our study was to investigate students' perceptions of VPs and build understanding about how to optimally implement them in the future. Educational activity and setting Four VP cases were implemented over the first three years of the entry to practice doctor of pharmacy program. Each case was focused on a different condition and implemented in one of three settings (i.e. integration activities, large lecture setting, or independent review). Students were invited to complete a survey and participate in a focus group after completing the patient case. Findings One-hundred eighty students completed the survey and six students participated in a focus group. Ninety-four percent of respondents strongly agreed/agreed that VPs were valuable for their learning. Students preferred the VP cases be implemented in small-group settings and be relevantly timed with course material. Students found helpful that cases were realistic, clear, comprehensive, engaging, and incorporated feedback. Perceived benefits included enhanced learning about medical conditions, development of clinical reasoning skills and processes for working through cases. Summary VPs continue to be identified as a valuable learning experience. When implemented it is important to consider the learner setting in order to get the greatest value from their use.

Recent research on the global ocean has emphasized diverse, dramatic, and largely ominous shifts in the ways that oceans function as a socionatural system. While all of this research provides a critical body of evidence for understanding what “future ocean” we will experience, the future of nature–society relations is ultimately about shaping human systems and behaviors. The last several decades have seen notable changes to marine property regimes, institutions, and modes of governance, with considerable consequences for individuals, communities, and political and economic systems. A growing body of evidence suggests that these emerging dynamics are increasingly resembling the established neoliberal political economic relations seen on land, including the enclosure, privatization, commodification, and marketization of previously untargeted forms of “natural capital.” Here we identify historical trends in the enclosure of ocean spaces and resources, how these enclosures emerged, and the discourses that have facilitated their expansion. We contrast the original goals and expectations in creating these enclosures with the reality of their consequences in practice, highlighting the inequitable outcomes for developing countries and marginalized actors. We highlight two case studies in contemporary marine enclosure, focusing on the role of privatization. Finally, we conclude by contrasting two possible “future oceans.” The neoliberal ocean future predicts the concentration of ocean resource wealth into the hands of privileged actors while traditional claims based on non-economic values are weakened, marginalized, and rendered illicit. In contrast, an alternate ocean future involving the transparent allocation of rights based on equity and distributional justice has the potential to recover the benefits of communal management, recognizing the inextricable linkages between human well-being and our future ocean.

Inaccurate or incomplete diagnosis of the root causes of overfishing can lead to misguided and ineffective fisheries policies and programmes. The “Malthusian overfishing narrative” suggests that overfishing is driven by too many fishers chasing too few fish and that fishing effort grows proportionately to human population growth, requiring policy interventions that reduce fisher access, the number of fishers, or the human population. By neglecting other drivers of overfishing that may be more directly related to fishing pressure and provide more tangible policy levers for achieving fisheries sustainability, Malthusian overfishing relegates blame to regions of the world with high population growth rates, while consumers, corporations and political systems responsible for these other mediating drivers remain unexamined. While social–ecological systems literature has provided alternatives to the Malthusian paradigm, its focus on institutions and organized social units often fails to address fundamental issues of power and politics that have inhibited the design and implementation of effective fisheries policy. Here, we apply a political ecology lens to unpack Malthusian overfishing and, relying upon insights derived from the social sciences, reconstruct the narrative incorporating four exemplar mediating drivers: technology and innovation, resource demand and distribution, marginalization and equity, and governance and management. We argue that a more nuanced understanding of such factors will lead to effective and equitable fisheries policies and programmes, by identifying a suite of policy levers designed to address the root causes of overfishing in diverse contexts.

Information is generally more memorable after it is studied and tested than when it is only studied. One must be cautious to use this phenomenon strategically, however, due to uncertainty about whether testing improves memorability for only tested material, facilitates learning of related non-tested content, or inhibits memory of non-tested material. 52 second-year Pharmacy students were asked to study therapeutic aspects of gastroesophageal reflux disease and peptic ulcer disease. One group was given 30 min to study. Another was given 20 min to study and 10 min to complete a 10-item test. Two weeks later a 40-item test was delivered to both groups that contained (a) the 10 learning phase questions, (b) 10 new questions drawn from the studied material, (c) 10 new questions about therapeutics in different disease states, and (d) 10 new questions drawn from more general pharmaceutical knowledge (e.g., basic physiology and drug characteristics). Moderate to large retrieval-enhanced learning effects were observed for both questions about material that was tested (22.9% difference in scores, p 0.05, d = 0.60) and questions about material that was studied without being tested (18.9% difference, p 0.05, d = 0.75). Such effects were not observed for questions that were not part of the study material: therapeutic questions that addressed different disease states (1.8% difference, p 0.7, d = 0.08) or generic pharmaceutical questions (7.4% difference, p 0.2, d = 0.32). Being tested made it more likely that students would report reviewing the material after the initial learning session, but such reports were not associated with better test performance. The benefit of mentally retrieving information from studied material appears to facilitate the retrieval of information that was studied without being tested. Such generalization of the benefit of testing can increase the flexibility of test-based pedagogic interventions.

In countries like Sierra Leone, where stock assessments based on fisheries-independent data and complex population models are financially and technically challenging, catch statistics may be used to infer fluctuations in fish stocks where more precise data are not available. However, FAO FishStat, the most widely-used time-series data on global fisheries ‘catches’ (actually ‘landings’), does not account for Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) catches and relies on statistics provided by the national agencies of each member country. As such, reported FishStat data is vulnerable to changes in monitoring capacity, governmental transitions, and budgetary constraints, and may substantially underestimate the measure of extracted marine resources. In this report, Sierra Leone's total catches by all marine fishing sectors were estimated for the period 1950–2015, using a catch reconstruction approach incorporating national data, expert knowledge, and both peer-reviewed and grey literature. Results demonstrate that a substantial amount of marine resource exploitation is not represented in official statistics, and reconstructed catches represent more than 2.25 times the recorded FAO Fishstat values. Notably, foreign fleets take the vast majority of industrial catch in Sierra Leone's EEZ, indicating that most of the resource catch and revenue is diverted to foreign companies and export markets. While foreign actors dominate the industrial sector, the small-scale sector represents the majority of domestic catch. Illegal fishing is also a substantial challenge in Sierra Leone, and extracts a large amount of the country's marine fish resources. Reconstructing catches in Sierra Leone also highlights the impacts of various historical events such as Sierra Leone's civil war and post-war reconstruction on the development of the fisheries sector. The results found in the reconstruction present a large discrepancy from FishStat data, with considerable implications for assessment of stocks and management of Sierra Leone's marine resources.

Author(s): Seto, Katherine; Fiorella, Kathryn J | Abstract: In the most recent U.S. Dietary Guidelines, the USDA Advisory Committee recommended for the first time the inclusion of sustainability considerations (DGA Committee, 2015). Since the U.S. Dietary Guidelines provide standards for nutrition and targets for federal and state food programs, explicitly incorporating sustainability would advance considerably discussions of food system sustainability (Merrigan et al., 2015). However, despite broad public support, sustainability 80 concerns were ultimately jettisoned from the 2015–2020 Guidelines (Secretary Vilsack and Burwell, 2015; US Department of Health and Human Services and US Department of Agriculture, 2015; Wood-Wright, 2016). Though much of the concern around incorporating sustainability has focused on animal agriculture, the sectors most heavily impacted by sustainability policies are arguably fisheries and aquaculture. Fish have been promoted as a sustainability strategy, providing nutritious alternatives to resource intensive livestock and poultry, and a concern, given the decline of many global fish stocks (Worm et al., 2006; Health Council of the Netherlands, 2011; FAO, 2014). Yet, we regularly overlook the origins and implications of this decline due to fragmented notions of our food resources. Resources that originate in our oceans, rivers, and lakes are almost entirely omitted in our conceptions of a sustainable food system.To understand the trade-offs from food production and consumption to sustainability, we must extend our understanding of food resources to conceive of fishery, agricultural, and livestock systems as integrally linked. Our failure to do so thus far has led to a disjointed understanding of our food system, contributed to inequalities in food access, and exacerbated overexploitation and environmental degradation. We argue here that fishery resources are of particular concern for sustainability yet often omitted in conceptions of our food system, and that such disjointed notions of food resources limit our ability to foster sustainable diets (Farmery et al., 2017).

This chapter examines how the EU Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) has historically affected fisheries in West Africa, and how recently enacted reforms to the CFP may alter or perpetuate trends in this relationship. The CFP’s historical impacts on West African states are explored through its various policy tools, as well as how CFP changes might affect relations between these countries and the EU, with implications for their wider economies. West African states represent some of Europe’s closest neighbors, and the waters comprising their Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) are some of the most productive fishing grounds for European fleets. The interests of European fishing nations and those of coastal West African states have often been at odds, however, and scholars have argued that the combined CFP policies have led to a range of consequences, from degraded habitat and diminished stocks to conflicts between domestic and foreign fishers and stymied local economies. This historical legacy is here examined, using existing data and studies to assess these claims. Furthermore, the profound impacts of the EU CFP far beyond European waters are demonstrated, along with the possible impacts of recent changes in the EU CFP for West African fisheries. Multiple policies and reforms are addressed, including the discard ban, the implementation of Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY), and the establishment of Sustainable Fisheries Partnership Agreements (SFPAs). The implications for West African fisheries are tremendous but also uncertain, and much will depend on the implementation of the rules in distant waters.

Armed conflict throughout the world's biodiversity hotspots poses a critical threat to conservation efforts. To date, research and policy have focused more on the ultimate outcomes of conflict for wildlife rather than on the ecological, social, and economic processes that create those outcomes. Yet the militarization that accompanies armed conflict, as well as consequent changes in governance, economies, and human settlement, has diverse influences on wildlife populations and habitats. To better understand these complex dynamics, we summarized 144 case studies from around the world and identified 24 distinct pathways linking armed conflict to wildlife outcomes. The most commonly cited pathways reflect changes to institutional and socioeconomic factors, rather than tactical aspects of conflict. Marked differences in the most salient pathways emerge across geographic regions and wildlife taxa. Our review demonstrates that mitigating the negative effects of conflict on biodiversity conservation requires a nuanced understanding of the ways in which conflict affects wildlife populations and communities.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is one of the world's most common sexually transmitted infections, and has been associated with a number of cervical and non-cervical diseases, including cancer. HPV vaccines have been licensed for use in females for some time, but the quadrivalent vaccine has only recently become licensed for use in males. Many countries have adopted a vaccination programme for adolescent females based on results of cost-effectiveness analyses. However, given the new indications for use of the vaccine in males, decision makers require information on the cost effectiveness of vaccinating males in order to make policy decisions on whether or not to fund such programmes.Our objective was to conduct a qualitative systematic review to update a previously conducted review of HPV vaccine studies.Articles were obtained from an extensive literature search to determine the cost effectiveness of implementing an HPV vaccination programme with routine cervical cancer screening. A total of 29 studies were included in this review. Seventeen of the included articles looked only at cervical disease outcomes, and 12 studies also included non-cervical disease outcomes. Four studies explored the economic impact of vaccinating both boys and girls. One study focused on a population of men who have sex with men (MSM).While different model structures, input parameters and baseline assumptions were used, the consistent message in studies that focused on female-only vaccination programmes was that routine vaccination of females is cost effective compared with cervical cancer screening alone.Based on the currently available literature, it appears that the addition of boys to a vaccination programme generally exceeds traditional cost-effectiveness thresholds. The MSM population represents a potential additional target for routine HPV vaccination; however, more cost-effectiveness studies are required before making such a policy change.

U.S. President Obama's recent creation of an interagency task force on wildlife trafficking reflects growing political awareness of linkages between wildlife conservation and national security (1). However, this and similar new initiatives in Europe and Asia promote a “war on poachers” that overlooks the ecological, social, and economic complexity of wildlife-related conflict. Input from multiple disciplines is essential to formulate policies that address drivers of wildlife decline and contexts from which associated conflicts ignite. This article further discusses the similarities and differences to human trafficking prevention. Language: en

This chapter examines how the EU Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) has historically affected fisheries in West Africa, and how recently enacted reforms to the CFP may alter or perpetuate trends in this relationship. The CFP’s historical impacts on West African states are explored through its various policy tools, as well as how CFP changes might affect relations between these countries and the EU, with implications for their wider economies.West African states represent some of Europe’s closest neighbors, and the waters comprising their Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) are some of the most productive fishing grounds for European fleets. The interests of European fishing nations and those of coastal West African states have often been at odds, however, and scholars have argued that the combined CFP policies have led to a range of consequences, from degraded habitat and diminished stocks to conflicts between domestic and foreign fishers and stymied local economies.This historical legacy is here examined, using existing data and studies to assess these claims. Furthermore, the profound impacts of the EU CFP far beyond European waters are demonstrated, along with the possible impacts of recent changes in the EU CFP for West African fisheries. Multiple policies and reforms are addressed, including the discard ban, the implementation of Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY), and the establishment of Sustainable Fisheries Partnership Agreements (SFPAs). The implications for West African fisheries are tremendous but also uncertain, and much will depend on the implementation of the rules in distant waters.

The discomfort expressed by Masuda and Scharks in linking wildlife declines to social conflict and Smith's concern about harvest effort increasing when wildlife declines reinforce the central message of our Policy Forum: Despite growing evidence of the importance of wildlife-society linkages, these

Background: Nearly all patients receive sedation and neuromuscular blockers (NMBs) during high-frequency oscillatory ventilation (HFOV). Objective: To describe analgo-sedation and NMB use prior to and during HFOV in adults with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Methods: Retrospective single-center study of 131 consecutive adults whose care was managed with HFOV from 2002 to 2011. Results: During the first 4 days of HFOV, 89% and 95% of patients received sedation and opioids, respectively. Upon HFOV initiation, 119 (90.8%) patients received fentanyl doses higher than 200 µg/h; of these, 48 also received more than 20 mg/h of midazolam. Analgo-sedation doses increased significantly over time such that doses were double by day 3. Factors independently associated with fentanyl doses higher than 200 µg/h were NMB ever used (OR 4.43; 95% CI 1.26-15.65, p = 0.02), pH less than 7.15 (OR 2.08; 95% CI 1.22-3.5, p = 0.007), worsening partial pressure of oxygen/fraction of inspired oxygen (OR 1.05; 95% CI 1.00-1.10, p = 0.04), and Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) II score (OR 0.87; 95% CI 0.79-0.97, p = 0.009). Deep sedation was commonly administered when NMBs were not being used, with 99.2% of sedation-agitation scores of 1 or 2. Eighty-six patients (65.6%) received NMBs and use was greatest on day 1 (59.5%). Train-of-Four was measured every hour for 53.4% of patients; 29.2% of the measurements were 0 of 4. NMB use declined over the 10-year study period. Conclusions: High analgo-sedation doses were associated with APACHE II scores, worsening gas exchange, and NMB use. Two thirds of patients received NMBs; use was highest on day 1 and subsequently declined. The percentage of patients who received NMB during HFOV in our study was lower than that previously reported. Future research should evaluate patient outcomes with and without use of NMBs, as well as the potential to manage patients with less sedation.