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Corylus produces allergenic pollen grains that appear in the air in early spring and cause pollen allergy in sensitive people. The aim of this study was to compare the Corylus pollen seasons in 2021 in the following 11 cities in Poland: Bialystok, Bydgoszcz, Cracow, Sosnowiec, Lublin, Olsztyn, Piotrkow Trybunalski, Szczecin, Warsaw, Wroclaw, and Zielona Gora. This research was conducted using the volumetric method and Burkard or Lanzoni pollen samplers. Pollen season duration was determined by the 95% method. The hazel pollen season in 2021 began relatively late, between February 20 and March 1. The season start was recorded earliest in Zielona Gora, while latest in Olsztyn. The highest values of maximum Corylus pollen concentration were recorded in Sosnowiec (230 P/m3) and Zielona Gora (213 P/m3), whereas the lowest ones in Bialystok (27 P/m3) and Bydgoszcz (54 P/m3). In most of these cities, the maximum daily concentration of Corylus pollen grains was recorded in the third 10 days of February or at the beginning of March and only in Lublin and Bialystok the peak value occurred later, on March 16 and March 26, respectively. The highest risk of allergy in people sensitive to the pollen of this taxon was found in Lublin, Olsztyn, and Zielona Gora. The highest values of the annual pollen integral were determined in Lublin, similarly to the previous years.

The study compares the yew and juniper pollen seasons in Bialystok, Bydgoszcz, Cracow, Lublin, Piotrkow Trybunalski, Sosnowiec, Szczecin, Warsaw, and Wroclaw in 2020. The investigations were conducted using the volumetric method. The yew and juniper season started in all measurement sites between February 2nd (Szczecin) and March 2nd (Lublin). The peak values of seasonal pollen count occurred between February 23rd (in Szczecin) and March 28th. The highest daily pollen count was recorded in Lublin (867 grains/m3) and the lowest pollen count in Bialystok (45 grains/m3). The highest annual totals were recorded in Lublin and Wroclaw. Most days, with a concentration equal to or above 50 grains/m3, causing symptoms in allergic patients were recorded in Lublin and Warsaw.

In Central Europe, mugwort pollen is a frequent cause of pollen allergy. Poland is one of the countries with the highest airborne concentrations of pollen of this taxon. Due to its high allergenic potential, Artemisia pollen may pose a significant threat to sensitive subjects during summer months. Plants from this genus often grow in urban and suburban areas. The aim of the study was to compare mugwort pollen seasons and concentrations of airborne pollen of these plants in 12 cities located in different regions of Poland: Bialystok, Bydgoszcz, Cracow, Lublin, Olsztyn, Opole, Piotrkow Trybunalski, Sosnowiec, Szczecin, Warsaw, Wroclaw, and Zielona Gora. The investigations were carried out with the volumetric method using a Hirst-type pollen sampler (Lanzoni or Burkard) operating on a 24-hour basis. The duration of the pollen season was determined with the 98% method. The earliest onset of the mugwort pollen season was noted in Opole (July 12th), and the latest beginning was recorded in Cracow and Sosnowiec (July 23rd). The maximum pollen concentrations were reported on August 7th and 8th in Lublin (177 grains/m3) and Wroclaw (100 grains/m3). In all the cities, peak days were recorded on the first 10 days of August. The maximum pollen concentrations in the other cities were in the range of 18–89 grains/m3. The highest annual pollen sum was recorded in Lublin (1423) and Wroclaw (1050). These values coincided with the highest pollen concentrations determined in these cities. The annual Artemisia pollen sums in 2020 did not have the highest values in comparison with other years in these cities. The average annual pollen sum in the five-year period of 2001–2005 was estimated at 2065 in Lublin and 1662 in Wroclaw. Therefore, it can be concluded that the risk of mugwort pollen allergy in the pollen season 2020 was lower than in some previous years.

This paper presents the course of alder pollination season in Poland in 2020. The measurements were performed in Bydgoszcz, Bialystok, Lublin, Olsztyn, Opole, Piotrkow Trybunalski, Sosnowiec, Szczecin, Warsaw, Wroclaw and Zielona Gora. Volumetric method with the use of Volumetric Spore Trap (Burkard, Lanzoni) was implemented. Pollen season was defined as the period in which 95% of the annual total catch occurred. The alder pollen season in 2020 started about 10–30 days earlier compared to 2017–2019. The pollen season started first in Szczecin, Opole and Zielona Gora (in the second half of January). In the other cities alder pollen season started in first half of February. The highest daily pollen count was recorded in Lublin (1211 P/m3). In other cities the maximum concentrations ranged from 160 P/m3 in Sosnowiec to 465 P/m3 in Piotrkow Trybunalski. The highest alder pollen concentrations were detected in the first decade of March (March 1st–3rd). Only in Zielona Gora, Wroclaw, Opole and Sosnowiec the maximum concentration was recorded in the third decade of February. The annual pollen sum of Alnus in 2020 was even 5–10 times lower than in years 2019.

The study aims to monitor the birch pollen season in selected Polish cities: Bialystok, Bydgoszcz, Cracow, Lublin, Olsztyn, Opole, Sosnowiec, Szczecin, Warsaw, Wroclaw and Zielona Gora in 2021. Pollen concentrations were recorded using a Burkard type sampler operating in a continuous volumetric mode. The birch pollen season of 2021 started during the first and second decade of April. In south-western Poland it began about 10 days earlier (April 7th or 10th) than in north-eastern regions (April 18th or 19th). The average length of the season was 31 days. The highest daily concentrations and annual pollen grains sum (seasonal pollen integral) were the most variable season characteristics. The maximum concentrations of birch pollen were recorded between April 21st (in Wroclaw) and May 1st (in Sosnowiec and Warsaw). It ranged from 222 p/m3 in Cracow up to 1997 p/m3 in Wroclaw. SPI was the lowest in Cracow (1573) and Sosnowiec (1763) and the highest in Bydgoszcz (5474) and Wroclaw (5072). The longest exposure to high concentrations of birch pollen, lasting 16–18 days, was detected in Szczecin, Olsztyn and Bydgoszcz. The abundance of birch pollen in Poland in 2021 was not as high as in 2019 and 2020, which, combined with the protective effect of mouth and nose masks due to COVID-19 pandemic, may have resulted in less severe allergy symptoms in sensitized individuals than in previous years.

In this work, the HYSPLIT model was used to reproduce birch pollen concentrations in Poland for the years 2015 and 2016, where there was significant variation in terms of pollen concentrations and start/end dates of the pollen season. The analysis of pollen observations showed that the seasonal pollen integral (SPIn) was low in 2015 with a shorter season compared to 2016. In 2016, SPIn was unusually high. The HYSPLIT model simulation, with a one-hour temporal resolution, was conducted during the birch pollen season (from March to May) for 2015 and 2016. Meteorological data were obtained from the WRF model. The birch coverage map of the European Forest Institute was used. The emission, introduced to the model, covered Central Europe with a resolution of 0.3° × 0.3°. The results were compared to data from 11 observation stations in Poland. The measured birch pollen concentrations for 2015 were overestimated by HYSPLIT at 8 of the 11 stations (normalized mean bias/NMB from 0.13 to 2.53) and underestimated for three stations (NMB from − 0.44 to − 0.15). For 2016, the model highly underestimated the pollen concentrations, with NMB ranging from − 0.45 to − 0.93. In general, the results show that the model can resolve the main peaks of pollen concentrations, which is a step forward in the application of the HYSPLIT model for birch pollen forecasting over Poland. We suggest the application of methods that can reduce the bias of temperature such as meteorological data assimilation or bias correction, which could improve calculation of the start of emissions and consequently the start of the pollen season as well as pollen concentrations.

Ambrosia is regarded as the most dangerous allergy-related plant posing a considerable threat to human health with its highly allergenic pollen. In Europe, there are 4 Ambrosia species originating from North America; they most often colonize ruderal habitats and agricultural fields. The aim of the study was to compare Ambrosia pollen seasons in 9 cities located in different parts of Poland in 2019. Aerobiological tests were conducted in Bialystok, Bydgoszcz, Lublin, Olsztyn, Piotrkow Trybunalski, Sosnowiec, Szczecin, Warsaw, and Wroclaw. The investigations were carried out with the volumetric method using Burkard or Lanzoni pollen samplers. The 98% method was used to determine the duration of the pollen season. The earliest onset of the pollen season was recorded in Szczecin (August 7th) and Sosnowiec (August 9th), whereas the latest beginning was noted in Wroclaw (August 22nd) and Bydgoszcz (August 21st). The longest pollen season was recorded in Sosnowiec (52 days) as well as Lublin and Szczecin (50 days), while the shortest pollen season was noted in Wroclaw (10 days). The highest mean daily concentrations of Ambrosia pollen grains were recorded in Sosnowiec (104 P/m3) and Wroclaw (77 P/m3), whereas the lowest value was obtained in Szczecin (18 P/m3). Peak days were noted mostly during the last 10 days of August. The highest value of Ambrosia annual pollen sum was reported from Sosnowiec (326) and Lublin (310), while the lowest sum was noted in Szczecin (69). The multimodal course of the graph presenting the pollen seasons in the analysed cities and literature data indicate that the pollen originated not only from local sources but also from long-distance transport. The highest risk of Ambrosia pollen-induced allergy in sensitive subjects was demonstrated in Lublin, Piotrkow Trybunalski and Warsaw. The concentration of Ambrosia pollen in the air of the analysed Polish cities was substantially lower than the values indicated by measurement stations located in other parts of Europe.

The aim of the study was to compare the course of Corylus pollen season in 2019 in 12 cities located in different regions of Poland: Szczecin, Bydgoszcz, Zielona Gora, Wroclaw, Opole, Sosnowiec, Cracow, Piotrkow Trybunalski, Warsaw, Lublin, Olsztyn, and Bialystok. The analyses were carried out with the volumetric method using Burkard or Lanzoni pollen samplers. The length of the pollen season was determined with the 95% method. The earliest onset of the season was recorded in Warsaw and Szczecin, and at the latest beginning was noted in Lublin. The highest maximum concentrations of Corylus pollen were recorded in Lublin (244 P/m3), while Olsztyn (65 P/m3) as well as Bialystok and Bydgoszcz (66 P/m3 in each) were characterized by the lowest values. The maximum daily concentration of Corylus pollen grains was recorded in 3 cities in the second decade of February (16–19.02) and in the other eight cities in the third decade of February (24–28.02). The exception was Bialystok, where the peak value was only noted on 5.03. The annual pollen sum reached the highest values in Lublin (1301 grains) and Wroclaw (1031 grains). The highest risk of allergy in individuals sensitive to the pollen of this taxon was found in Lublin, Wroclaw, and Piotrkow Trybunalski. In Lublin, the highest hazel pollen concentrations were recorded in the earlier years of the investigations as well.

The study's main objective was to specify the extent to which weather conditions were related to the course of birch pollen seasons in the years 1997–2020. The impact of atmospheric conditions on the daily concentrations of birch pollen grains, the Annual pollen integral (APIn), and the length of pollen seasons were studied. The dependency between each meteorological condition and various features of the birch pollen season was determined using Spearman’s rho correlation, the Kruskal–Wallis test, and cluster analysis with the k-means method. It has been shown that the duration of sunshine and average air temperature occurring within 14 days preceding the season has the most significant influence on the beginning of a birch pollen season. The value of daily birch pollen concentrations in Sosnowiec showed a statistically significant positive correlation with the duration of sunlight and the average and maximum wind speed. The daily concentration also depended on the synoptic situation: the mass airflow direction, the type of air mass inflow, and the type of weather front. The near-ground temperature influenced the APIn of birch pollen grains during the period of 14 days before the beginning of the season and the meteorological conditions occurring in the summer of the preceding year such as the maximum temperature, duration of sunlight, the maximum and average wind speed, and the relative air humidity. It was concluded that the length of birch pollen seasons decreased year by year.

Abstract In 2016, the highest birch (Betula spp.) pollen concentrations were recorded in Kraków (Poland) since the beginning of pollen observations in 1991. The aim of this study was to ascertain the reason for this phenomenon, taking the local sources of pollen in Poland and long-range transport (LRT) episodes associated with the pollen influx from other European countries into account. Three periods of higher pollen concentrations in Kraków in 2016 were investigated with the use of pollen data, phenological data, meteorological data and the HYSPLIT numerical model to calculate trajectories up to 4 days back (96 h) at the selected Polish sites. From 5 to 8 April, the birch pollen concentrations increased in Kraków up to 4000 Pollen/m3, although no full flowering of birch trees in the city was observed. The synoptic situation with air masses advection from the South as well as backward trajectories and the general birch pollen occurrence in Europe confirm that pollen was transported mainly from Serbia, Hungary, Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, into Poland. The second analyzed period (13–14 April) was related largely to the local flowering of birches, while the third one in May (6–7 May) mostly resulted from the birch pollen transport from Fennoscandia and the Baltic countries. Unusual high pollen concentrations at the beginning of the pollen season can augment the symptomatic burden of birch pollen allergy sufferers and should be considered during therapy. Such incidents also affect the estimation of pollen seasons timing and severity. Graphical Abstract

The study compares the course of the spore season of Alternaria in Bialystok, Cracow, Olsztyn, Piotrkow Trybunalski, Sosnowiec, Szczecin, Warsaw, and Wroclaw in 2020. The investigations were conducted using the volumetric method. Alternaria spore season was defined as the period in which 90% of the annual total catch occurred. The Alternaria season started first in Bialystok on May 19 and lasted on June 28 in Wroclaw. The highest airborne concentration of 1052 Alternaria spores/m3 was noted in Wroclaw on July 30. The highest annual sum of Alternaria spores (SPI) was observed in Warsaw (19 390 spores) and the lowest in Bialystok (5769 spores). Most days, the threshold concentration inducing symptoms in allergic persons occurred in Piotrków Trybunalski, Szczecin, and Warsaw.

The aim of the work was to compare the qualitative and quantitative composition of aeroplankton in Sosnowiec (Poland) at three heights. The research was conducted on July 3rd, 4th and 5th, 2018 with the help of three Burkard spore traps: one stationary and two portable ones. The analyses were carried out at an altitude of 83 m, 15 m and at the ground level. Aerobiological data was recorded every hour and the collected pollen grains and fungal spores were determined later on. The relationships between individual meteorological conditions and different features of the alder pollen season were determined using Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients. The research has shown that the greatest fluctuations in the daily pollen count occurred at the lowest measuring point, i.e. at the ground level. The largest part of the determined palynomorphs were fungal spores, the most numerous of which was Cladosporium, followed by Alternaria, Epicoccum and Botrytis. Statistical analysis showed that the highest concentrations of fungal spores and plant pollen grains were influenced by wind speed, maximum gust of wind and solar radiation.

This paper presents the course of goosefoot pollination in selected cities of Poland in 2018. The measurements were performed in Bialystok, Bydgoszcz, Cracow, Drawsko Pomorskie, Lublin, Olsztyn, Opole, Piotrkow Trybunalski, Sosnowiec, Szczecin, Warsaw, Wroclaw, and Zielona Gora. Volumetric method with the use of Volumetric Spore Trap (Burkard, Lanzoni) was implemented. In the studied cities in 2018, pollen season of goosefoot started in the third decade of May and ended in the third decade of September. Goosefoot pollen stayed in the air for more than 100 days – 142 days in Sosnowiec and 109 days in Bialystok. Maximum daily concentration (26 P/m3) was noticed in Bialystok, although the lowest – in Cracow (7 P/m3). In the majority of the measuring points the highest moment of pollen season was in August. The highest number of pollen grains in 2018 was found in Lublin (478 grains), the lowest – in Cracow (149 grains). The concentration above 10 P/m3 was very rare, only in Lublin it was this high for 12 days and in Warsaw for 8 days.

Ambrosia causes most pollen allergies in North America. After several Ambrosia species were introduced to Europe, an increase in the incidence of allergy to pollen of these plants has been observed in many countries. The aim of this study was to compare Ambrosia pollen seasons in 2018 in 13 cities located in different regions of Poland: Bialystok, Bydgoszcz, Cracow, Drawsko Pomorskie, Lublin, Olsztyn, Opole, Piotrkow Trybunalski, Sosnowiec, Szczecin, Warsaw, Wroclaw and Zielona Gora. The study was conducted by the volumetric method using Burkard or Lanzoni pollen samplers. The pollen season was determined by the 98% method. The earliest pollen season start dates (the end of July) were recorded in Zielona Gora, Bydgoszcz, Opole and Szczecin, while the latest ones in Drawsko Pomorskie and Bialystok. The longest pollen seasons occurred in Opole, Szczecin and Zielona Gora (79 days). The highest average daily concentrations of Ambrosia pollen were recorded in Bialystok (129 P/m3) and Lublin (99 P/m3), while the lowest ones in Drawsko Pomorskie and Szczecin (4 and 10 P/m3, respectively). The annual pollen sum reached the highest value in Opole (567 pollen grains) and Zielona Gora (555 pollen grains). It can be concluded from the pattern of Ambrosia pollen seasons at the monitoring sites studied that pollen of this taxon originates not only from Ambrosia locations in Poland but also from long-distance transport.

The aim of the present study was to compare the mugwort pollen season in 2018 in Bialystok, Bydgoszcz, Cracow, Drawsko-Pomorskie, Lublin, Olsztyn, Opole, Sosnowiec, Szczecin, Warsaw, Wroclaw, and Zielona Gora. Pollen concentration measurements were made by the volumetric method using Burkard or Lanzoni pollen samplers. The pollen season was considered as the period during which 98% of the total annual pollen count occurred. The Seasonal Pollen Index (SPI) was calculated as the sum of the average daily pollen concentrations throughout the season determined for the individual cities. The mugwort pollen season started earliest in Bialystok (June 21st) and Bydgoszcz (June 25th), while in the other cities its onset occurred in the first 10 days of July. Significant differences were found in season duration (68–110 days), SPI, and peak value. The longest season occurred in Zielona Gora and Bydgoszcz, while the shortest one in Wroclaw. The highest SPI and maximum concentration values were observed in Lublin and Zielona Gora. In most of the cities, the peak value was recorded in the first 10 days of August. The highest risk of allergy in people sensitive to the pollen of this taxon was found in Zielona Gora, Lublin, and Warsaw.

The study compares the hazel pollen seasons in Szczecin, Drawsko Pomorskie, Bydgoszcz, Zielona Gora, Wroclaw, Opole, Sosnowiec, Cracow, Piotrkow Trybunalski, Warsaw, Lublin, Olsztyn and Bialystok in 2018. The investigations were carried out using the volumetric method. The hazel pollen season began between 24th January and 7th March. Maximum daily pollen concentrations were noted earliest on 3rd March and latest on 4th April. The greatest risk of allergies caused by the presence of airborne hazel pollen was observed in Lublin. Based on phenological observations of hazel pollen emission, it was found that pollen release also occurred on frosty days with high sunshine hours.

This paper presents the course of poplar pollen season in selected Polish cities in 2018. The measurements were performed in Szczecin, Bydgoszcz, Olsztyn, Bialystok, Zielona Gora, Warsaw, Piotrkow Trybunalski, Lublin, Wroclaw, Opole, Sosnowiec and Cracow. Volumetric method with the use of Volumetric Spore Trap (Burkard, Lanzoni) was implemented. Pollen season was defined as the period in which 95% of the annual total catch occurred. Pollen season of poplar in 2018 started more then 30 days later in comparison to 2014. The pollen season started first in Cracow (March 20th). The highest daily pollen count was recorded in Wroclaw on April 11th (1104 P/m3).

Alder pollen grains constitute the important allergen sources in this respect in the Northern Hemisphere. The aim of the study was to investigate the concentration of alder (Alnus spp.) in Bialystok, Bydgoszcz, Cracow, Drawsko Pomorskie, Lublin, Olsztyn, Opole, Piotrkow Trybunalski, Sosnowiec, Szczecin, Warsaw, Wroclaw and Zielona Gora in 2018. Measurements were performed by the volumetric method (Burkard and Lanzoni pollen samplers). Seasonal Pollen Index (SPI) was estimated as the annual sum of daily average pollen concentrations. The pollen season of alder in all Polish stations began on the 11th and 13th March and the high concentration persisted until the first days of April. The highest, record airborne concentration of 1068 pollen grains/m3 was noted in Lublin on the 13th March. The peak values of seasonal pollen count occurred between of 11th March and 4th April in all cities. In 2018 pollen concentration of alder was one of the lowest in all analysed cities.

The goal of this study was to compare hazel pollen seasons in Sosnowiec in 1997–2019 and to analyse the impact of weather conditions on these seasons. The measurements were conducted using a volumetric method with a Burkard spore trap. The duration of pollen seasons was determined using the 98% method. SPI (Seasonal Pollen Index) was calculated as the sum of daily pollen concentrations in a given season. The measurements showed that high temperatures in January and February had an impact on the beginning of the hazel pollen season. They revealed that there are positive correlations with temperatures and sunshine hours long before the season, i.e. 210–180 days before. The daily hazel pollen concentration in Sosnowiec showed a positive and statistically significant correlation with air temperature, sunshine hours, and average and maximum wind speed. Negative correlation was demonstrated for snow cover depth and relative humidity of the air. Daily concentration levels depend also on the type of weather front as well as direction of air mass flow and its type. Variance analysis showed that the highest concentrations of hazel pollen grains were recorded when warm air moves from the south and south–western direction, whereas the lowest ones were noted for air moving from the east, south–east, north and north–east directions. Atmospheric precipitation, snow cover depth, and average, maximum, minimum and near-the-ground temperatures in the season also had an impact on the SPI of hazel pollen grains. High positive correlation coefficients were also observed in the case of thermal conditions, sunshine hours, relative humidity and precipitation from July to September in the year preceding a given pollen season. The duration of the hazel pollen season depends on precipitation, snow cover depth and temperature during a given season.

With their numerous natural and functional values, lime trees are recommended for planting in urban greenery. However, the allergenic properties of lime pollen should be taken into account. The aim of the study was to analyze the concentration of airborne lime pollen and the course of pollen seasons in this taxon in 10 cities in Poland in 2020. The aerobiological analyses were carried out in Bialystok, Bydgoszcz, Cracow, Lublin, Olsztyn, Opole, Piotrkow Trybunalski, Sosnowiec, Szczecin, and Warsaw. The investigations were conducted with the volumetric method using Burkard or Lanzoni pollen samplers. The 98% method was employed to determine the length of the pollen season. The earliest onset of the lime pollen season was recorded in Opole and Warsaw (June 14th), and the latest date was noted in Sosnowiec (June 23rd). The maximum lime pollen concentrations were reported between July 1st and July 6th in most cities and on June 24th only in Lublin and Opole. The highest annual pollen sums were recorded in Lublin (738), similar to those reported in 2018 and 2019, whereas the lowest values were noted in Bialystok (20), Sosnowiec (145), and Olsztyn (149). The annual sums of lime pollen in the other measurement sites located in the different regions of Poland were in the range of 180–308. In the discussion, the results from 2020 for Lublin are compared with data from the previous 19 years collected in this city. The data suggest that the increase in the airborne lime pollen concentration recorded in Lublin in recent years may be associated with climate change.

Almost all the species of the Chenopodiaceae family present in our flora flower from July–August to the autumn. Unfortunately, allergies do not take a vacation. Warm, dry July and August weather should limit pollen emissions. However, similarly to most plants in dry habitats, goosefoot are well adapted to such conditions and does not provide even a short reprieve to pollen allergic patients. However, goosefoot pollen does not have a very large allergenic significance; despite the long pollen season lasting about 3 months, pollen concentrations in the air are low and very rarely exceed the concentration of 30 grains/m3. This study compares Chenopodiaceae pollen seasons in Poland, Hungary and Slovakia in 2019. The investigations were carried out using the volumetric method (Hirst type pollen sampler). Seasonal pollen index was estimated as the sum of daily average pollen concentrations in the given season. The pollen season ranges from June to September, depending on the geographical latitude. In Hungary and Slovakia there are much longer pollen seasons than in Poland. Pollen of goosefoot family contains the panallergen profilins, which are responsible for cross-reactivity among pollen-sensitized patients. In 2019 the pollen season of goosefoot started first in Hungary, in Kaposvar on June 7th and in Slovakia, in Žilina, on June 8th; in Poland pollen season started much later, on June 14th in Szczecin and Opole. At the latest, a pollen season ended in Nitria (Slovakia) on October 16th; in Kecskemet (Hungary) on October 3rd. In Poland the season ended much earlier than in Hungary and Slovakia already on August 25th. The differences of pollen season durations are considerable, the number of days ranged from 72 to 128. The dynamics of the pollen seasons of goosefoot family show similarities within a given country and considerable differences between these countries. However, the differences of the highest airborne concentration between the countries are not considerable (25 pollen grains/m3 in Poland, 49 pollen grains/m3 in Hungary, and 30 pollen grains/m3 in Slovakia. The maximum values of seasonal pollen count in Polish cities occurred between July 26th and August 29th, in Hungarian cities between August 27th and 30th, and in Slovakian cities between August 7th and 28th. Pollen season was characterized by extremely different total annual pollen SPI, in Poland from 116 to 360; in Hungary and Slovakia within the limits 290 to 980. Droughts that occur more frequently during the summer facilitate the spread of species of the goosefoot family due to the possibility of these plants gaining new habitats.

Various concentrations of Chenopodiaceae/Amaranthaceae pollen are detected in the air of many regions of Europe. The highest content of pollen produced by the taxon is reported in southern Europe and in other countries with a warm climate and low precipitation sums. The study was focused on characterization of the Chenopodiaceae/Amaranthaceae pollen season in 11 Polish cities: Bialystok, Bydgoszcz, Cracow, Lublin, Olsztyn, Piotrkow Trybunalski, Sosnowiec, Szczecin, Warsaw, Wroclaw, and Zielona Gora in 2020. The volumetric method based on the use of the Lanzoni or Burkard pollen sampler was employed in the study. In 2020, the pollen season in the analyzed plant family began in the second half of June and ended during the first ten days of October. The earliest pollen season onset was recorded in Lublin (June 13th) and Szczecin (June 14th), whereas the latest beginning was noted in Wroclaw (July 5th). The earliest and latest end of the pollen season was recorded in Bialystok (September 6th) and in Olszyn (October 5th), respectively. In terms of length, the season was characterized by the shortest duration in Wroclaw (70 days) and the longest duration in Olsztyn (106 days). In most of the analyzed cities, maximum pollen concentrations were detected in the second half of August, and the highest values were recorded in Zielona Gora and Sosnowiec. Compared to 2019 and 2018, relatively low sums of the annual concentrations of Chenopodiaceae/Amaranthaceae pollen grains, i.e. in the range of 35–231, were recorded in Poland in 2020. The highest values of this parameter were reported in Olsztyn (231) and Lublin (230), whereas the lowest value was noted in Bialystok (35). The relatively low maximum concentrations of Chenopodiaceae/Amaranthaceae pollen recorded during the study year indicate a low risk of development of allergy symptoms induced by the presence of pollen of this taxon in the air.

In recent years, allergies due to airborne pollen allergens have shown an increasing trend, along with the severity of allergic symptoms in most industrialized countries, while synergism with other common atmospheric pollutants has also been identified as affecting the overall quality of citizenly life. In this study, we propose the state-of-the-art WRF-Chem model, which is a complex Eulerian meteorological model integrated on-line with atmospheric chemistry. We used a combination of the WRF-Chem extended towards birch pollen, and the emission module based on heating degree days, which has not been tested before. The simulations were run for the moderate season in terms of birch pollen concentrations (year 2015) and high season (year 2016) over Central Europe, which were validated against 11 observational stations located in Poland. The results show that there is a big difference in the model’s performance for the two modelled years. In general, the model overestimates birch pollen concentrations for the moderate season and highly underestimates birch pollen concentrations for the year 2016. The model was able to predict birch pollen concentrations for first allergy symptoms (above 20 pollen m−3) as well as for severe symptoms (above 90 pollen m−3) with probability of detection at 0.78 and 0.68 and success ratio at 0.75 and 0.57, respectively for the year 2015. However, the model failed to reproduce these parameters for the year 2016. The results indicate the potential role of correcting the total seasonal pollen emission in improving the model’s performance, especially for specific years in terms of pollen productivity. The application of chemical transport models such as WRF-Chem for pollen modelling provides a great opportunity for simultaneous simulations of chemical air pollution and allergic pollen with one goal, which is a step forward for studying and understanding the co-exposure of these particles in the air.

PM10 samples collected over one year from the city of Sosnowiec, part of the Upper Silesia metropolis were studied. The locale was a gradient meteorological station, 4 m and 100 m above ground. The dominant compounds identified were anhydro-, mono- and disaccharides which were divided into three groups of organic tracers (OT): biomass burning (BB) including low-rank coal burning, pollen grains (PG) and fungal spores (FS). The BB group included: levoglucosan, mannosan and galactosan, complemented with vanillic and dehydroabietic acids. The PG group included: fructose, glucose and sucrose, supplemented with D-pinitol, and the FS tracers included: arabitol, mannitol and trehalose. Levoglucosan reached 1503 ng/m3 in heating season at 4 m and 983 ng/m3 at 100 m. These values are among the highest mean concentrations of levoglucosan reported in Europe, confirming severe pollution of the Upper Silesian urban environment. We also suggest that the significant levoglucosan levels during the non-heating seasons could be from wind advected polluted soil and dust. All FS tracers correlate well with fungal spore counts, while the correlation of pollen numbers with their typical molecular tracers is statistically less significant. Weather conditions significantly influence the concentration of OT in aerosols. Among these, air temperature is a factor that affects the occurrence/existence of OT in the atmosphere, while temperature inversions are the main phenomenon which determines elevated concentrations of pollutants and their vertical variation in ambient air. For example, the concentration of BB tracers can be twice as high at 4 m as at 100 m under moderate to strong temperature inversions associated with low wind speed. Water vapor pressure and sun irradiation are also important factors controlling OT concentrations. This is one of the first studies of vertical differences in organic tracers which presents the variability and complexity of the processes affecting their concentrations in ambient air.

The aim of this study was to compare Betula pollen seasons in 2019 in 12 cities located in different regions of Poland. Pollen monitoring was conducted in Bialystok, Bydgoszcz, Cracow, Lublin, Olsztyn, Opole, Piotrkow Trybunalski, Sosnowiec, Szczecin, Warsaw, Wroclaw, and Zielona Gora. Airborne pollen was monitored by the volumetric method using Burkard or Lanzoni pollen samplers. Pollen season length was determined by the 98% method. The pollen season start date was recorded earliest in Wroclaw and Zielona Gora, and latest in Bialystok. The highest Betulapollen concentration values were found in Lublin, whereas the lowest ones in Bialystok. In most of the cities, the maximum daily Betula pollen concentration was recorded on April 19th or 20th. Exceptionally, in Wroclaw the peak value occurred on April 8th, while in Bialystok as late as April 29th. The annual pollen sum reached the highest values in Warsaw and the lowest ones in Bialystok. The highest risk of allergy in people sensitive to the pollen of this taxon was found in Bydgoszcz, Zielona Gora, Szczecin, Opole, and Warsaw

The study compares the yew and juniper pollen seasons in Bialystok, Bydgoszcz, Cracow, Katowice, Piotrkow Trybunalski, Opole, Szczecin, Zielona Gora, Warsaw, Wroclaw and Lublin in 2019. The investigations were carried out using the volumetric method (Hirst type pollen sampler). Seasonal Pollen Index (SPI) was estimated as the sum of daily average pollen concentrations in the given season. The yew pollination is mainly observed in February and March, while juniper pollination is mainly observed in March and April. Due to the morphological similarity of the pollen grains of both taxa, the pollen seasons of yew and juniper are considered together. The pollen season of yew/juniper started first in Szczecin, on the February 22nd. At the latest, a pollen season ended in Bialystok, Bydgoszcz, Zielona Gora, Warsaw and Lublin at the end April. The differences of pollen seasons duration were very considerable, from 20 to 63 days. The highest airborne concentration of 784 pollen grains/m3 was noted in Wroclaw on the March 7th. The maximum values of seasonal pollen count occurred between March 4th and 31st. The highest yew and juniper pollen allergen hazard occurred in 2019 in Lublin and Wroclaw and it was at least twice as high as other cities.

During the spring period, Betula pollen is the main cause of inhalant allergies in Poland and therefore it is impor- tant to monitor and forecast airborne pollen concentrations of this taxon. This study conducted a comparative analysis of the basic characteristics of Betula pollen seasons at the regional scale. The study was carried out from 2001 to 2016 in fi ve cities in Poland: Lublin, Warsaw, Cracow, Sosnowiec, and Szczecin. To fi nd the attri- butes of birch pollen seasons that mostly differentiated the individual cities, a general discriminant analysis (GDA) was performed, while a principal component analysis (PCA) allowed us to reduce the data space and pres- ent a scatterplot of PCA scores in order to compare pollen seasons in the individual cities. The contingency table was also analyzed to check whether there was a signi fi cant relationship between pollen counts in the studied years and cities. At most of the sites, biennial cycles of low and high pollen concentrations can be observed. Due to the high variation in seasons in each of these cities, two data groups were distinguished: Group 1 was composed of seasons with high pollen deposition (2001, 2003, 2006, 2008, 2010, 2012, 2014, 2016), and Group 2 comprising the other seasons. Multivariate analyses were performed on both these groups as well as in the entire dataset. End98, Peak Value, and Annual Total had the highest discriminant power. In Group 1, Warsaw and Sosnowiec differed the most in the investigated parameters, while Cracow and Szczecin differed the least. In both groups, most seasons with the highest pollen birch concentration were observed in Lublin, followed by Warsaw, while in Cracow, the number of such seasons was the smallest.

Prediction of allergic pollen concentration is one of the most important goals of aerobiology. Past studies have used a broad range of modeling techniques; however, the results cannot be directly compared owing to the use of different datasets, validation methods, and evaluation metrics. The main aim of this study was to compare nine statistical modeling techniques using the same dataset. An additional goal was to assess the importance of predictors for the best model. Aerobiological data for Corylus, Alnus, and Betula pollen counts were obtained from nine cities in Poland and covered between five and 16 years of measurements. Meteorological data from the AGRI4CAST project were used as a predictor variables. The results of 243 final models (3 taxa $$\times$$ 9 cities $$\times$$ 9 techniques) were validated using a repeated k-fold cross-validation and compared using relative and absolute performance statistics. Afterward, the variable importance of predictors in the best models was calculated and compared. Simple models performed poorly. On the other hand, regression trees and rule-based models proved to be the most accurate for all of the taxa. Cumulative growing degree days proved to be the single most important predictor variable in the random forest models of Corylus, Alnus, and Betula. Finally, the study suggested potential improvements in aerobiological modeling, such as the application of robust cross-validation techniques and the use of gridded variables.

The study compares the hornbeam pollen seasons in Bialystok, Bydgoszcz, Drawsko Pomorskie, Zielona Gora, Opole, Sosnowiec, Cracow, Piotrkow Trybunalski, Warsaw, Lublin, Olsztyn and Szczecin in 2018. The investigations were carried out using the volumetric method (Hirst type pollen sampler). Seasonal Pollen Index was estimated as the sum of daily average pollen concentrations in the given season. Pollen season was defined as the period in which 98% of the annual total catch occurred. The pollen season of hornbeam started first in Bialystok, on the April 3rd. At the latest, a pollen season ended in Lublin and Sosnowiec at the beginning of May. However, in most other cities the season lasted till the end of April. The differences of pollen seasons duration were considerable, from 16 to 36 days. The highest airborne concentration of 168 pollen grains/m3 was noted in Lublin on the April 14th. The maximum values of seasonal pollen count occurred between April 12th and 16th. The highest hornbeam pollen allergen hazard occurred in 2018 in Lublin, Warsaw and Piotrkow Trybunalski.

The paper presents the course of the grass (Poaceae) pollen season in Bialystok, Bydgoszcz, Cracow, Sosnowiec, Lublin, Olsztyn, Szczecin, Drawsko Pomorskie, Warsaw, Piotrkow Trybunalski, Opole, Wroclaw and Zielona Gora in 2018. The pollen of grass is the primary trigger of pollen allergies during the summer months. It causes some of the most severe and difficult-to-treat symptoms. Measurements were performed by the volumetric method (Burkard and Lanzoni pollen samplers). The pollen season of Poaceae started first in Sosnowiec, Lublin and Opole in the third decade of April. The highest, record airborne concentration of 243 pollen grains/m3 was noted in Lublin on June 19th. The maximum values of seasonal pollen count occurred between of May 27th and June 4th in all cities. The highest grass pollen allergen hazard occurred in 2018 in Warsaw, Lublin and Zielona Gora.

The study compares the maple pollen seasons in Bialystok, Bydgoszcz, Cracow, Drawsko Pomorskie, Sosnowiec, Lublin, Olsztyn, Opole, Piotrkow Trybunalski, Szczecin, Warsaw and Zielona Gora in 2018. The investigations were conducted using the volumetric method. The maple season started in all sites in the first decade of April, with the exception of Sosnowiec, where the season began already on March 16th. The peak values of seasonal pollen count occurred between 12th–20th April in all cities. The highest daily pollen count was recorded in Sosnowiec and in Lublin on the same day (12th April) in both cities. The greatest risk of allergies caused by the presence of airborne maple pollen was observed in Sosnowiec, Lublin and Opole.

The aim of the work was to compare the alder pollen seasons in the years 1997–2017 in Sosnowiec. The measurements of pollen concentration were taken with the volumetric method using Burkard’s apparatus. The impact of atmospheric conditions on the daily alder pollen grain concentration, the annual totals, and the duration of pollen seasons were studied. The dependency between each meteorological condition and different features of the alder pollen season was determined by using Pearson’s correlation coefficients, variance analysis with multiple comparison tests, and the linear regression model using backward elimination. It was proven that the temperatures directly preceding the pollination, i.e. the January and February temperatures as well as those from the period from 210 to 180 days preceding the beginning of the season, have the greatest impact on the beginning of the alder pollen season. The value of the daily alder pollen concentration in Sosnowiec showed a positive statistically significant correlation with the air temperature and sunshine duration and a negative correlation with the thickness of the snow cover and air relative humidity. The daily concentration also depended on the type of the weather front, direction of air mass inflow, and the type of the inflowing air mass. The season temperatures and the thermal conditions which were present in the summer of the preceding year impacted the annual totals (SPI) of the alder pollen grains.

The paper presents the course of pollen season of plantain in Bialystok, Bydgoszcz, Drawsko Pomorskie, Cracow, Lublin, Olsztyn, Opole, Piotrkow Trybunalski, Sosnowiec, Szczecin, Warsaw, Wroclaw and Zielona Gora in 2018. Measurements were performed by the volumetric method (Burkard and Lanzoni pollen samplers). Pollen season was defined as the period in which 98% of the annual total catch occurred. The plantain pollen season started in the first decade of May and lasted until the end of September. Despite such a long pollen season in Poland, only in some cities there are days with an average concentration exceeding 10 P/m3. Significant differences were observed in annual sum values. The highest values were recorded in Lublin (400 grains) and Zielona Gora (308 grains), and the lowest in Drawsko Pomorskie (160 grains) and Olsztyn (184 grains). The value of annual average in 2018 was usually lower than in the previous years.

This paper presents the course of the pollen season of birch in Zielona Gora, Wroclaw, Opole, Sosnowiec, Piotrkow Trybunalski, Warsaw, Cracow and Lublin in 2017. Measurements were performed by the volumetric method (Burkard and Lanzoni pollen samplers). Pollen season was defined as the period in which 98% of the annual total catch occurred. Pollen season of birch in 2017 started more than 4–5 days earlier in comparison to 2016. The earliest onset of the birch pollen season was recorded in Zielona Gora, Wroclaw, Opole and Warsaw – 31st March. The highest daily pollen count was recorded in Wroclaw – 2028 P/m3 (1st April).

Artykuł dotyczy oceny sezonów pyłkowych Poaceae w Polsce w wybranych regionach. Celem pracy było przedstawienie wieloletniej zmienności początku, końca i długości sezonów pyłkowych traw oraz sezonowego indeksu pyłkowego (wartość SPI) w Polsce na tle warunków meteorologicznych. Badania były prowadzone w ośmiu miastach Polski, w okresie 1992-2014 (sezony 2003-2012 były wspólne dla wszystkich miast). Początek sezonu pyłkowego był względnie stały w okresie badawczym, sezony rozpoczynały się około 10 maja, nieco wcześniej w południowej części Polski. Koniec sezonu pyłkowego był bardziej zmienny w porównaniu do początku, jego termin wahał się od połowy lipca do połowy września. SPI wyraźnie zależał od temperatury i opadów w okresie kwiecień–sierpień. Dobowe stężenie maksymalne pyłku były odnotowywane pomiędzy końcem maja a pierwszą dekadą lipca, nie wykazano wyraźnej zależności pomiędzy dniem stężenia maksymalnego i warunkami pogodowymi, z wyjątkiem 2004 roku. The paper refers to the estimation of Poaceae pollen seasons in Poland in selected areas. The aim of the study was to present the long-term variability of the start, end and duration of grass pollen seasons and the seasonal pollen index (SPI) in Poland against a background of the meteorological conditions over pollen seasons. The study was performed in eight Polish cities in 1992-2014 (the common seasons were 2003-2012). Pollen season start was relatively stable in the studied period, the seasons began about the 10th of May, a bit earlier in the south part of Poland. Pollen season ends were more changeable in comparison to the season start and fluctuated from the middle of July to the middle of September. SPI clearly depended on temperature and precipitation in April-August. Daily maximum pollen concentrations were achieved between the end of May and the first decade of July and no evident relationship between this day and weather conditions was found, apart from 2004.

This paper investigates pollen seasons for Corylus spp. and Alnus spp. for the years 1997-2007 in Sosnowiec, southern Poland. The research was conducted by means of the volumetric method using a Burkard-type spore trap. The duration of pollen seasons was determined by means of the 98% method. The aim of this study was to distinguish the types of the course of hazel and alder pollen seasons using cluster analysis, including non-hierarchical clustering of multi-feature objects - k-means clustering. The pollen seasons were divided into five types because of considerable variations from one year to another. For both taxons one dominant type was found, which was characterized by a very long period of compact pollen release with low values of the pollen count and by the occurrence of several maximums divided by periods of a lower pollen count. This work contains only a preliminary analysis on the types of pollen seasons because of relatively short data set. Future research on a larger series of measurements should be proved.

We analyse the impact of ground-based data assimilation to the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) meteorological model on parameters relevant for birch pollen emission calculations. Then, we use two different emission databases (BASE - no data assimilation, OBSNUD - data assimilation for the meteorological model) in the chemical transport model and evaluate birch pollen concentrations. Finally, we apply a scaling factor for the emissions (BASE and OBSNUD), based on the ratio between simulated and observed seasonal pollen integral (SPIn) to analyse its impact on birch concentrations over Central Europe. Assimilation of observational data significantly reduces model overestimation of air temperature, which is the main parameter responsible for the start of pollen emission and amount of released pollen. The results also show that a relatively small bias in air temperature from the model can lead to significant differences in heating degree days (HDD) value. This may cause the HDD threshold to be attained several days earlier/later than indicated from observational data which has further impact on the start of pollen emission. Even though the bias for air temperature was reduced for OBSNUD, the model indicates a start for the birch pollen season that is too early compared to observations. The start date of the season was improved at two of the 11 stations in Poland. Data assimilation does not have a significant impact on the season's end or SPIn value. The application of the SPIn factor for the emissions results in a much closer birch pollen concentration level to observations even though the factor does not improve the start or end of the pollen season. The post-processing of modelled meteorological fields, such as the application of bias correction, can be considered as a way to further improve the pollen emission modelling.