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A case of combined interstitial and intrauterine pregnancies after bilateral salpingectomy and in-vitro fertilization with embryo transfer is reported. The case was incorrectly diagnosed ultrasonographically as intrauterine triplets at 7 weeks gestation. The patient suffered from intra-abdominal bleeding at 14 weeks gestation. At laparotomy, a ruptured left interstitial pregnancy with a non-viable fetus was found in the left abdominal quadrant. The uterine defect was successfully repaired and gestational contents and blood were evacuated from the abdominal cavity. The intrauterine twin pregnancy progressed without incident, and a Caesarean section was performed at 36 weeks gestation, resulting in health male and female infants. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A case of simultaneous bilateral tubal pregnancy resulting from in-vitro fertilization and embryo transfer is presented. Repeated transvaginal ultrasound examinations confirmed an intrauterine sac but no fetus. A diagnosis of early missed abortion was incorrectly made and a curettage was performed. The pathological examination showed the presence of decidua and Arias-Stella phenomenon but no chorionic villi. Diagnostic laparoscopy and laparotomy performed 40 days after embryo transfer (eighth week of gestation), revealed bilateral tubal pregnancy. Bilateral salpingectomy was performed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A case of simultaneous bilateral tubal pregnancy resulting from in-vitro fertilization and embryo transfer is presented. Repeated transvaginal ultrasound examinations confirmed an intrauterine sac but no fetus. A diagnosis of early missed abortion was incorrectly made and a curettage was performed. The pathological examination showed the presence of decidua and Arias-Stella phenomenon but no chorionic villi. Diagnostic laparoscopy and laparotomy performed 40 days after embryo transfer (eighth week of gestation), revealed bilateral tubal pregnancy. Bilateral salpingectomy was performed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Objectives/aim: Sports-related dental injuries occur frequently among athletes due to inadequate knowledge and prevention measures. The aim of the study was to assess knowledge, attitudes, and practices of active soccer players from all leagues in Croatia regarding traumatic dental injuries and the use of mouthguards., Material and Methods: 393 respondents completed a questionnaire-based online survey from March 2022 to April 2022. The questionnaire consisted of 37 questions divided in four sections: demographic characteristics, experience with orofacial injuries, knowledge of emergency therapeutic procedures for dental injuries, and behaviors related to the use of a mouthguard., Results: Insufficient knowledge was confirmed by a total score of 2.8 ± 2.8 points, with a possible maximum of 11. Respondents' better knowledge can be associated with educational level (p = .002), playing position (p = .046), and personally experienced injuries to the face and jaw (p ≤ .001) and teeth (p = .022). Less than 40% of respondents suffered facial and jaw injuries while playing football and 18.6% suffered dental injuries. Although most respondents (93.9%) were familiar with mouthguards and 68.9% believed that they help prevent injuries while playing football, only 16% used them., Conclusion: The study revealed significant gaps in knowledge regarding dental injuries and the practice of mouthguard usage among Croatian soccer players. Therefore, it is evident that additional education is needed to prevent dental injuries and take proper procedures when taking care of them among the examined population., (© 2023 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Purpose: The aim of this study is to assess the effect of the endometrial thickness and embryo quality on the implantation potential in natural cycle IVF (NC-IVF)., Methods: A retrospective single-center study was performed on 552 single embryo transfers after NC-IVF. The 'quality' of the embryos was evaluated trough the number and regularity of blastomeres, degree of fragmentation, and nuclear content of cells. Endometrial thickness was measured in millimeters with transvaginal ultrasound on the day of hCG application., Results: Our findings showed a statistically significant difference in successful implantation until a plateau of 10 mm is reached (p = 0.001). Only one pregnancy was achieved where endometrial thickness was less than 7 mm, and this resulted in an early miscarriage. The predictors of favorable implantation were fragmentation (≤ 10%, p < 0.05) and the number of blastomeres (preferably 8-cell, p < 0.01) on day 3. Embryo quality (R = 0.052) and endometrial thickness (R = 0.18) were closely related to pregnancy rate. The overall implantation rate per embryo transfer was 18.8%., Conclusions: Embryo quality and endometrial thickness have a significant impact on implantation in NC-IVF. Highest implantation potential has an 8-cell embryo with ≤ 10% fragmentation in the third day following oocyte retrieval. Endometrial thickness of at least 7 mm seems to be the optimal edge of successful pregnancy.

Various oncological and non-oncological diseases, as well as their treatments, can cause premature ovarian insufficiency and reduce a woman's reproductive potential. Fertility preservation is, therefore, becoming an emerging field of reproductive medicine allowing these patients to have their own biological children. The aim of this review is to analyze the importance of ovarian tissue cryopreservation as a fertility preservation method as well as its new role as a hormone replacement treatment. Although ovarian tissue cryopreservation is currently regarded as an experimental procedure, it is rapidly advancing and may become an established fertility preservation method in the near future. This method does not require ovarian stimulation or a subsequent delay in the initiation of cancer treatment. Furthermore, orthotopic ovarian tissue transplantation offers the unique opportunity of spontaneous conception. Due to the restoration of endocrine function following the procedure, ovarian tissue cryopreservation may also be used as tissue hormone replacement therapy in cases of premature ovarian insufficiency, to postpone menopause and prevent its troublesome symptoms and diseases. Even though the role of ovarian tissue cryopreservation as a new anti-aging treatment modality is quite promising, the safety and efficacy of this approach should be investigated in clinical settings.

The aim of this review is to provide qualitative evidence-based synthesis regarding efficacy of luteal-phase support on fertility outcome in women undergoing in vitro fertilization (IVF) with respect to clinical or live birth rates and pregnancy loss rates. Although the need of luteal phase support in IVF/ICSI cycles is well-known, the optimal start, dosage, route and the duration of the luteal phase support is still subject of debate. Data suggest that the optimal period to start with the luteal phase support would be between 24-72 hours after oocyte-retrieval and should continue at least until a positive pregnancy test is achieved. However, the majority of IVF-centers worldwide provide progesterone support up to 8 weeks of pregnancy. Among the well-established routes of luteal support, oral dydrogesterone and subcutaneous progesterone represent new and interesting routes of progesterone administration. The current studies support these routes of progesterone administration use in terms of comparable pregnancy rates and pregnancy loss rates to vaginal and intramuscular progesterone. Furthermore, the acceptance and tolerability among patients seems to be even better. In the frozen-thawed embryo transfer, dydrogesterone and vaginal progesterone are not effective as monotherapy treatments; however, when combined there is no reason to avoid one or the other in this setting.

The aim of the study was to investigate whether altered adipose tissue secretion of various adipokines is secondary to obesity, hyperandrogenism, and hyperinsulinemia or intrinsic to polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). This cross-sectional study included 151 women diagnosed with PCOS by the Rotterdam criteria and 95 healthy women matched by age, body mass index (BMI), and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR). Clinical, biochemical, and hormonal characteristics were assessed. Serum concentrations of ghrelin and adiponectin were found to be significantly lower and concentrations of leptin and resistin significantly higher in women with PCOS than in healthy women matched by age, BMI, and WHR. A PCOS diagnosis made the largest contribution to predicting serum levels of leptin, adiponectin, resistin, and ghrelin in all stepwise multiple regression models, which included PCOS diagnosis, BMI, WHR, luteinizing hormone, total testosterone, free testosterone and homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance as independent predictors. Leptin, adiponectin, ghrelin and resistin levels may serve as independent biomarkers for the diagnosis of PCOS.

Although breast cancer (BC) occurs more often in older women, it is the most commonly diagnosed malignancy in women of childbearing age. Owing to the overall advancement of modern medicine and the growing global trend of delaying childbirth until later age, we find ever more younger women diagnosed and treated for BC who have not yet completed their family. Therefore, fertility preservation has emerged as a very important quality of life issue for young BC survivors. This paper reviews currently available options for fertility preservation in young women with early-stage BC and highlights the importance of a multidisciplinary approach to fertility preservation as a very important quality of life issue for young BC survivors. Pregnancy after BC treatment is considered not to be associated with an increased risk of BC recurrence; therefore, it should not be discouraged for those women who want to achieve pregnancy after oncologic treatment. Currently, it is recommended to delay pregnancy for at least 2 years after BC diagnosis, when the risk of recurrence is highest. However, BC patients of reproductive age should be informed about the potential negative effects of oncologic therapy on fertility, as well as on the fertility preservation options available, and if interested in fertility preservation, they should be promptly referred to a reproductive specialist. Early referral to a reproductive specialist is an important factor that increases the likelihood of successful fertility preservation. Embryo and mature oocyte cryopreservation are currently the only established fertility preservation methods but they require ovarian stimulation (OS), which delays initiation of chemotherapy for at least 2 weeks. Controlled OS does not seem to increase the risk of BC recurrence. Other fertility preservation methods (ovarian tissue cryopreservation, cryopreservation of immature oocytes and ovarian suppression with gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists) do not require OS but are still considered to be experimental techniques for fertility preservation.

The aim of this review is to analyze the role of obesity on fertility outcome in women undergoing in vitro fertilization (IVF) with respect to clinical or live birth rates and pregnancy loss rates. Despite findings from several earlier and newer studies that obesity does not adversely affect pregnancy outcome in women attempting conception, numerous reports from mostly recent studies suggest that obesity undoubtedly impairs IVF outcomes. Obesity impairs ovarian responsiveness to gonadotrophin stimulation, requiring higher doses of medication, increased risk of cycle cancelation, pre-term delivery, low birth weight or miscarriage, and decreases implantation, clinical pregnancy or live birth rates compared to women of normal weight. The mechanisms underlying the adverse effects of female obesity on IVF outcome may be primarily explained by functional alterations to the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis. Additionally, obesity appears to affect deleteriously the number and quality of oocytes or embryos, and impairs endometrial decidualization which is necessary for uterine receptivity. Nevertheless, attaining normal body weight by the use of lifestyle modifications, including a healthy diet and exercise over time of several months before and during an IVF treatment, may be successful in achievement of gradual and sustainable weight loss with improvement of IVF outcome.

The aim of the review is to establish sexual and reproductive functions in men with spinal cord lesion (SCL). Many sexual and reproductive dysfunctions may be found in these patients including individual's low self-esteem, delay of orgasm, erectile or ejaculatory disorder and abnormalities of semen, which are characterized by lower sperm motility or viability. Owing to improvements in physical medicine and rehabilitation, the focus has been shifted from keeping patients alive towards ensuring the quality of life and improvements of sexual dysfunctions and later reproduction. Erectile dysfunction can be treated by using phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors, intracavernosal injections, vacuum devices and penile prostheses. Semen can be retrieved from anejaculatory patients by medically assisted methods utilizing penile vibratory stimulation, electroejaculation, prostate mas-sage, or surgically. Although there is low chance for pregnancy in natural way in most of SCL pa-tients, fatherhood is possible through the introduction of assisted medical management. By use of various medical, technical and surgical procedures for sperm retrieval combined with assisted reproductive methods, high pregnancy rates have been reported comparable to those in able-bodied subfertile patients. Nevertheless, future studies are needed to improve semen quality and methods of assisted ejaculation in patients with SCL.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is the commonest endocrine disorder amongst women of reproductive age, which is characterized by reproductive and cardiometabolic disturbances with long-term health repercussions. Insulin resistance (IR), impaired glucose tolerance, type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2), obesity and dyslipidemia occur more in women with PCOS than in age-comparable women without PCOS. Long term data regarding risks or benefits of medical intervention for metabolic dysfunction of PCOS are lacking. Therapies, such as oral contraceptives (OCPs) and anti-androgenic medications used to manage the reproductive manifestations of PCOS, may themselves be the cause of cardiometabolic perturbations. Hence, strategies regarding the management of reproductive issues in PCOS encompass a patient-specific tailored approach. Factors that influence the cardiometabolic side effects arising during treatment of the reproductive manifestations of PCOS (hirsutism/anovulation) are also discussed in this paper in order to build future strategies to minimize the overall cardiometabolic risk.

The role of macroprolactinemia in women with hyperprolactinemia is currently controversial and can lead to clinical dilemmas, depending upon the origin of macroprolactin, the presence of hyperprolactinemic symptoms and monomeric prolactin (PRL) levels. Macroprolactinemia is mostly considered an extrapituitary phenomenon of mild and asymptomatic hyperprolactinemia associated with normal concentrations of monomeric PRL and a predominance of macroprolactin confined to the vascular system, which is biologically inactive. Patients can therefore be reassured that macroprolactinemia should be considered a benign clinical condition, resistant to antiprolactinemic drugs, and that no diagnostic investigations or prolonged follow-up should be necessary. However, a significant proportion of macroprolactinemic patients appears to suffer from hyperprolactinemia-related symptoms and radiological pituitary findings commonly associated with true hyperprolactinemia. The symptoms of hyperprolactinemia are correlated to the levels of monomeric PRL excess, which may be explained as coincidental, by dissociation of macroprolactin, or by physiological, pharmacological and pathological causes. The excess of monomeric PRL levels in such cases is of primarily importance and the diagnosis of macroprolactinemia is misleading or inadequate. However, macroprolactinemia of pituitary origin associated with radiological findings of pituitary adenomas may rarely occur with similar hyperprolactinemic manifestations, exclusively due to bioactivity of macroprolactin. Therefore, in such cases with hyperprolactinemic signs and pituitary findings, macroprolactinemia should be considered a pathological biochemical condition of hyperprolactinemia. Accordingly, individualized diagnostic investigations with the introduction of dopamine agonists, or other treatment with prolonged follow-up, should be mandatory. The review analyses the laboratory and clinical significance of macroprolactinemia in hyperprolactinemic women suggesting clinically useful diagnostic and treatment strategies., (Copyright © 2017. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

The aim of this review is to analyse the effectiveness of exogenous kisspeptin administration as a novel alternative of triggering oocyte maturation, instead of currently used triggers such as human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) or gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) agonist, in women undergoing in vitro fertilisation (IVF) treatment. Kisspeptin has been considered a master regulator of two modes of GnRH and hence gonadotropin secretion, pulses and surges. Administration of kisspeptin-10 and kisspeptin-54 induces the luteinising hormone (LH) surge required for egg maturation and ovulation in animal investigations and LH release during the preovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle and hypothalamic amenorrhoea in humans. Exogenous kisspeptin-54 has been successfully administered as a promising method of triggering oocyte maturation, following ovarian stimulation with gonadotropins and GnRH antagonists in women undergoing IVF, due to its efficacy considering achieved pregnancy rates compared to hCG and GnRH agonists. Also, its safety in patients at high risk of developing ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome is noteworthy. Nevertheless, further studies would be desirable to establish the optimal trigger of egg maturation and to improve the reproductive outcome for women undergoing IVF treatment.

The purpose of this review is to analyze current medical strategies in the prevention of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS) during ovarian stimulation for in vitro fertilization. Owing to contemporary preventive measures of OHSS, the incidence of moderate and severe forms of the syndrome varies between 0.18% and 1.40%. Although none of medical strategies is completely effective, there is high-quality evidence that replacing human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) by gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists after GnRH antagonists and moderate- quality evidence that GnRH antagonist protocols, dopamine agonists and mild protocols reduce the occurrence of OHSS. Among various GnRH agonists, buserelin 0.5 mg, triptorelin 0.2 mg and leuprolide acetate (0.5-4 mg) have been mostly utilized. Although GnRH trigger is currently regarded as the best tool for OHSS prevention, intensive luteal support with exogenous administration of estradiol and progesterone or low-dose hCG on the day of oocyte retrieval or on the day of GnRH agonist trigger are required to achieve optimal conception rates due to early luteolysis. Among currently available dopamine agonists, cabergoline, quinagolide and bromocriptine are the most common drugs that should be used for prevention of both early and late OHSS. Mild stimulation protocols offer attractive option in OHSS prevention with satisfactory pregnancy rates.

Young men comprise the overwhelming majority of men with spinal cord injury (SCI), the incidence of which has been growing over the years. Due to advances in physical medicine and rehabilitation, remarkable improvements in survival rates have been reported, leading to life expectancies similar to those of the general population. However, many sexual and reproductive functions may be impaired due to erectile or ejaculatory dysfunction and semen abnormalities, characterised by low-sperm motility or viability in SCI males who have not become parents yet. Nevertheless, fatherhood is still possible through the introduction of specialised medical management, by using various medical, technical and surgical methods for sperm retrieval in combination with assisted reproductive techniques. Erectile dysfunction can be managed by the use of phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors, intracavernosal injections, vacuum devices and penile prostheses. Semen can be obtained from the vast majority of anejaculatory men by medically assisted ejaculation through the use of penile vibratory stimulation or electroejaculation and via prostate massage or surgical procedures. Despite impaired sperm parameters, reasonable pregnancy rates similar to those in able-bodied subfertile cohorts have been reported. However, future research should focus on the optimisation of semen quality in these men and on improving natural ejaculation.

The aim of the review is to analyse the combination of a gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) agonist with a human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) trigger, for final oocyte maturation in in vitro fertilisation (IVF) cycles. The concept being a ''dual trigger'' combines a single dose of the GnRH agonist with a reduced or standard dosage of hCG at the time of triggering. The use of a GnRH agonist with a reduced dose of hCG in high responders demonstrated luteal phase support with improved pregnancy rates, similar to those after conventional hCG and a low risk of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS). The administration of a GnRH agonist and a standard hCG in normal responders, demonstrated significantly improved live-birth rates and a higher number of embryos of excellent quality, or cryopreserved embryos. The concept of the ''double trigger" represents a combination of a GnRH agonist and a standard hCG, when used 40 and 34 h prior to ovum pick-up, respectively. The use of the ''double trigger" has been successfully offered in the treatment of empty follicle syndrome and in patients with a history of immature oocytes retrieved or with low/poor oocytes yield. Further prospective studies are required to confirm the aforementioned observations prior to clinical implementation.

The purpose of this review is to present contemporary measures for preventing the increase in preovulatory progesterone (P) and its adverse effects on ovarian stimulation in in vitro fertilization (IVF). For the last 20 years, the increase of preovulatory P has been a topic of numerous discussions because its role is not fully understood in terms of its impact on pregnancy outcome after IVF. Some studies failed to establish a connection between the preovulatory P increase and successful IVF outcome regardless of the level of P, while, conversely, most other studies have reported on adverse effects of elevated P concentrations. Current strategies to prevent the increase in preovulatory P include an individualized approach with the use of mild stimulation protocols and early application of human chorionic gonadotropin for ovulation induction among good responders, delay in the transfer of fresh embryos from 3rd to 5th day, and cryopreservation of all embryos with the thawed embryo transfer in the natural cycle. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to confirm the current preventive methods or enable the application of new strategies in order to lower or eliminate the detrimental effects of preovulatory P rise during ovarian stimulation in IVF.

Occurrence of bilateral pneumothorax, pneumomediastinum and subcutaneous emphysema during gynecologic laparoscopic procedure is very rare. We report a case of a 23-year-old woman who developed bilateral pneumothorax, pneumomediastinum and subcutaneous emphysema during laparoscopic ovarian cystectomy. Carbon dioxide extravasations outside the peritoneal cavity during laparoscopy may have fatal consequences. Careful monitoring, immediate diagnosis and proper treatment are crucial for patient safety.

The aim of this review is to analyze current diagnostic approaches to obesity in adult men, the potential mechanisms linking obesity to infertility, and treatment options aimed at improving reproductive health. Obesity has become a worldwide epidemic with the estimated prevalence increasing from 28.8% to 36.9% between 1980 and 2013. In terms of diagnosis, numerous simple techniques have been developed including body mass index, waist to hip ratio, waist circumference, bioelectrical impedance analysis, ultrasound and skinfold measurements. Additionally, several other less available but more accurate techniques have been suggested, such as air displacement plethysmography, dual energy x-ray absorptiometry, computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. In addition to cardiovascular and other disorders, male obesity can negatively affect the male reproductive potential through abnormal reproductive hormone levels, reduced semen quality, increased release of adipose-derived hormones and adipokines, as well as thermal, genetic and sexual mechanisms. In the management of obesity related male infertility, natural weight loss is the cornerstone and regular exercise the first-line treatment. Although bariatric surgery results in greater improvements in weight loss outcomes when compared to non-surgical interventions, further research is required to clarify its overall influence on male fertility.

Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS) is a rare and potentially life-threatening complication of infertility treatment occurring during either the luteal phase or early pregnancy. An increasing number of thromboembolic complications associated with the increased use of assisted reproductive techniques have been reported in the literature. Identification of the risk factors is crucial for prevention of thromboembolic events in OHSS patients. Alterations in the hemostatic system cause hypercoagulability in women affected by severe OHSS. Coexistence of inherited hypercoagulable conditions increases the risk of thromboembolism. The role of clinical parameters that can help predict development of thrombosis is controversial. Patients with a personal or family history of thrombosis undergoing infertility treatment should be considered for thrombophilia screening, while routine examination of inherited thrombophilic mutations is not indicated in infertile patients. Antithrombotic primary prevention is not indicated in healthy women undergoing assisted reproductive procedures or in women with thrombophilia. Anticoagulant therapy is indicted if there is clinical evidence of thrombosis or laboratory evidence of hypercoagulability. In this review, the risks of hypercoagulability in the OHSS are discussed.

Objectives: To compare efficacy, satisfaction and tolerability of oral dydrogesterone and micronized vaginal progesterone gel used for luteal supplementation., Study Design: Randomized controlled trial. A total of 853 infertile women undergoing IVF/ICSI treatment in University Hospital Center "Sisters of Mercy", Zagreb, Croatia. Luteal support was provided as Crinone 8%(®) vaginal progesterone gel (90mg) administered daily, or oral dydrogesterone Duphaston(®) (2× 10mg) administered two times daily. Progesterone was administered from the day of oocyte retrieval (day 0) till pregnancy test or in a case of pregnancy, until week 10., Results: The on-going pregnancy rates were comparable between Crinone 8%(®) vaginal progesterone gel and oral dydrogesterone - Duphaston(®) (28.1% versus 30.3%; OR 1.11 (0.82-1.49 with 95% CI)). Overall satisfaction and tolerability were significantly higher in the dydrogesterone group than in the Crinone group. Vaginal bleeding, interference with coitus and local adverse side effects such as vaginal irritation and discharge occurred significantly more in Crinone group than in dydrogesterone group., Conclusions: Oral dydrogesterone is effective drug, well tolerated and accepted among patients and can be considered for routine luteal support., Clinical Trial Registration Number: NCT01178931; www.clinicaltrials.gov., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The purpose of this review is to analyse current options for fertility preservation in young women with breast cancer (BC). Considering an increasing number of BC survivors, owing to improvements in cancer treatment and delaying of childbearing, fertility preservation appears to be an important issue. Current fertility preservation options in BC survivors range from well-established standard techniques to experimental or investigational interventions. Among the standard options, random-start ovarian stimulation protocol represents a new technique, which significantly decreases the total time of the in vitro fertilisation cycle. However, in patients with oestrogen-sensitive tumours, stimulation protocols using aromatase inhibitors are currently preferred over tamoxifen regimens. Cryopreservation of embryos and oocytes are nowadays deemed the most successful techniques for fertility preservation in BC patients. GnRH agonists during chemotherapy represent an experimental method for fertility preservation due to conflicting long-term outcome results regarding its safety and efficacy. Cryopreservation of ovarian tissue, in vitro maturation of immature oocytes and other strategies are considered experimental and should only be offered within the context of a clinical trial. An early pretreatment referral to reproductive endocrinologists and oncologists should be suggested to young BC women at risk of infertility, concerning the risks and benefits of fertility preservation options.

Macroprolactin is an antigen-antibody complex of higher molecular mass than prolactin (>150kDa), consisting of monomeric prolactin and immunoglobulin G. The term 'macroprolactinemia' is used when the concentration of macroprolactin exceeds 60% of the total serum prolactin concentration determined by polyethylene glycol precipitation. The gold standard technique for the diagnosis of macroprolactinemia is gel filtration chromatography. The prevalence of macroprolactinemia in hyperprolactinemic populations varies between 15% and 35%. Although the pathogenesis of these antibodies is not clear, it is possible that changes in the pituitary prolactin molecule represent increased antigenicity to the immune system, leading to the production of anti-prolactin antibodies. Mild hyperprolactinemia usually occurs because macroprolactin is not cleared readily from the circulation due to its higher molecular weight. Moreover, the hypothalamic negative feedback mechanism for autoantibody-bound prolactin is inactive because macroprolactin cannot access the hypothalamus, resulting in hyperprolactinemia. Reduced in-vivo bioactivity of macroprolactin may be the reason for the lack of hyperprolactinemic symptoms. It also seems that anti-prolactin autoantibodies may compete with prolactin molecules for receptor binding, resulting in low bioactivity. Additionally, the large molecular size of macroprolactin confined in the intravascular compartment prevents its passage through the capillary endothelium to the target cells, which may be the reason for the lack of symptoms. Macroprolactinemia is considered to be a benign clinical condition in patients with normal concentrations of bioactive monomeric prolactin, with a lack, or low incidence, of hyperprolactinemic symptoms and negative pituitary imaging. In such cases with resistance to anti-prolactinaemic drugs, no pharmacological treatment, diagnostic investigations or prolonged follow-up are required. However, macroprolactinemia may also occur in patients with conventional symptoms of hyperprolactinemia who cannot be differentiated from patients with true hyperprolactinemia. These symptoms are mainly attributed to excess levels of monomeric prolactin, and this is of concern. The diagnosis of macroprolactinemia is misleading and inappropriate. A multitude of physiological, pharmacological and pathological causes, including stress, prolactinomas, hypothyroidism, renal and hepatic failure, intercostal nerve stimulation and polycystic ovary disease, can contribute to increased levels of monomeric prolactin. It is important for patients with elevated monomeric prolactin levels to undergo routine evaluation to identify the exact pathological state and introduce adequate treatment, regardless of the presence of macroprolactin. In addition, macroprolactinemia occasionally occurs due to macroprolactin associated with pituitary adenomas, with biological activity of macroprolactin comparable with that of monomeric prolactin. In cases when excess macroprolactin occurs with clinical manifestations of hyperprolactinemia, macroprolactinemia should be regarded as a pathological biochemical variant of hyperprolactinemia. An individualized approach to the management of such patients with macroprolactinemia may be necessary, and pituitary imaging, dopamine treatment and prolonged follow-up should be applied., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The aim of this review is to analyse the pathophysiology and complications of thrombosis in conjuction with ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS) following ovulation induction and to suggest practical guidelines usefull for the prevention and treatment. Although the incidence of thrombosis varies from 0.2% among in vitro fertilization (IVF) cycles and up to 10% for severe cases of the syndrome, it represents the most dangerous complication of OHSS. Different changes in haemostatic markers have been found to create a state of hypercoagulability, but no single standard test is available to estimate the state of thrombosis. The role of markers for thrombophilia is controversial. Thromboses are mostly venous (67-75%) involving upper limbs and neck, then arterial (25-33%) which are mainly intracerebral. The predominant sites of venous thromboembolism in the upper part of the body may be explained by higher concentrations of estrogens drained through lymphatic ducts from ascites and by compression of rudimentary branchyal cysts. Once early diagnosis is established, it is crucial to use an anticoagulant treatment with heparin proceeded with thromboprophylaxis. However, identification of patients at risk and preventive measures of OHSS are the best means in reducing the risk of thrombosis after ovarian stimulation.

Women with polycystic ovary syndrome seem to have a larger ovarian reserve. However, regardless of a greater reserve, diminished ovarian reserve has been reported after laparoscopic diathermy. The aim of this article was to determine whether the doses adjusted unilateral laparoscopic ovarian drilling with diathermy (ULOD) diminishes ovarian reserve to compare with bilateral laparoscopic ovarian drilling with diathermy (BLOD). Ninety-six women were assigned in two groups. One group underwent ULOD receiving thermal doses (0-840 J per ovary) adjusted to volume one ovary. The other group underwent BLOD receiving fixed doses (600 J per ovary). Ovarian reserve markers [anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH); antral follicle count (AFC) and ovarian volume] were measured before and after surgery (1 and 6 months). Both groups showed a decrease in AMH after surgery, but it was significantly more distinct in the BLOD versus ULOD group (2.0 ng/mL versus 1.3 ng/mL; p = 0.018) in the first follow-up month and remained significantly different through the sixth follow-up month (1.9 ng/mL versus 1.15 ng/mL; p = 0.023). In contrast, in the sixth month, the ULOD versus BLOD showed a significantly greater increase AFC (p < 0.001) and volume (p = 0.013). Our findings evidenced that the dose-adjusted unilateral diathermy (60 J/cm(3)) does not have significant and long-term effects on ovarian reserve.

An increase in the incidence of breast cancer in women aged < 40 years in conjunction with a pronounced shift towards later childbearing has been reported in recent years. Because survival from breast cancer in women of childbearing age has significantly improved, they are often concerned whether subsequent pregnancy will alter their risk of disease recurrence. In the modern era, the prognosis of pregnancy-associated breast cancer is comparable to non-pregnancy-associated breast cancer and women can bear children after breast cancer treatment without compromising their survival. Therefore, they should not be discouraged from becoming pregnant, and currently the usual waiting time of at least 2 years after the diagnosis of breast cancer is recommended. However, a small, nonsignificant adverse effect of pregnancy on breast carcinoma prognosis among women who conceive within 12 months of breast cancer diagnosis and a higher risk of relapse in women younger than 35 up to 5 years of the diagnosis may be found. Fortunately, for women with localized disease, earlier conception up to six months after completing their treatment seems unlikely to reduce their survival. Ongoing and future prospective studies evaluating the risks associated with pregnancy in young breast cancer survivors are required.

The purpose of this review is to analyse the sources and effects of follicular progesterone elevations during ovarian stimulation, with the underlying mechanisms and preventive strategies on the in vitro fertilisation pregnancy outcome. In the early follicular phase, a flare-up effect of gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists and incomplete luteolysis in GnRH antagonist regimens can result in significant elevations of progesterone. In the late follicular phase, progesterone elevations in GnRH analogue cycles are the result of the ovarian stimulation itself, driven by high follicle stimulating hormone dosage, estradiol levels, the number of follicles and oocytes. It seems that progesterone elevations (> or = 1.5 ng/mL or 4.77 nmol/L) have a detrimental effect on the outcome of pregnancy, accelerating the endometrial maturation. The most appropriate choice to avoid the negative effects of follicular progesterone elevations is to cancel fresh embryo transfer and to transfer frozen-thawed embryos in natural cycles. To prevent follicular phase elevations it might be preferable to use milder stimulation protocols, earlier trigger of ovulation in high responders and single-blastocyst transfer on day 5. The optimal GnRH analogue protocols during the entire stimulation period appear to be the long agonist as well as "long" and long GnRH antagonist regimens.

An increasing trend towards later childbearing has been reported recently in many developed countries. Although the incidence of reproductive age in women who have delayed pregnancy with cancer is 10%, they may be concerned regarding the preservation of ovarian function due to advanced fertile age and with the impact of cancer treatment on later fertility. Among multiple strategies controlled, ovarian stimulation for embryo or oocyte cryopreservation is currently the most established method for fertility preservation. It is important to choose the appropriate ovulation induction protocol prior to oncologic treatment, because most of these patients have only the chance of a single cycle to conceive. Current treatment protocols offer a minimal time delay until oncologic treatment is commenced. In urgent settings, random-start ovarian stimulation represents a new technique which provides a significant advantage by decreasing the total time of the treatment, because it may be started irrespective of the phase of the cycle without compromising oocyte yield and maturity before cancer treatment. However, in patients with oestrogen-sensitive cancers stimulation, protocols using letrozole are currently preferred over tamoxifen regimens, and therefore, it may be highly advisable to use letrozole with gonadotrophins routinely as a safe, effective and novel protocol of ovulation induction.

In many countries of the developed world, there is an increasing trend toward delay in childbearing from 30 to 40 years of age for various reasons. This is unfortunately concordant with an increasing incidence of breast cancer in women who have not yet completed their family. The current choice for premenopausal women with breast cancer is adjuvant therapy which includes cytotoxic chemotherapy, ovarian ablation (by surgery, irradiation, or chemical ovarian suppression), anti-estrogen therapy, or any combination of these. Although the use of adjuvant therapies with cytotoxic drugs can significantly reduce mortality, it raises issues of the long-term toxicity, such as induction of an early menopause and fertility impairment. The risk of infertility is a potential hardship to be faced by the patients following treatment of breast cancer. The offspring of patients who became pregnant after completion of chemotherapy have shown no adverse effects and congenital anomalies from the treatment, but sometimes high rates of abortion (29%) and premature deliveries with low birth weight (40%) have been demonstrated. Therefore, the issue of recent cytotoxic treatment remains controversial and further research is required to define a "safety period" between cessation of treatment and pregnancy. Preservation of fertility in breast cancer survivors of reproductive age has become an important issue regarding the quality of life. Currently, there are several potential options, including all available assisted technologies, such as in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer, in vitro maturation, oocyte and embryo cryopreservation, and cryopreservation of ovarian tissue. Because increased estrogen levels are thought to be potentially risky in breast cancer patients, recently developed ovarian stimulation protocols with the aromatase inhibitor letrozole and tamoxifen appear to provide safe stimulation with endogenous estrogen. Embryo cryopreservation seems to be the most established fertility preservation strategy, providing a 25-35% chance of pregnancy. In addition, oocyte freezing can be considered as an alternative in patients who are single and in those who do not wish a sperm donor. Although ovarian tissue harvesting appears to be safe, experience regarding ovarian transplantation is still limited due to low utilization, so the true value of this procedure remains to be determined. Nevertheless, in clinical situations in which chemotherapy needs to be started in young patients facing premature ovarian failure, ovarian tissue preservation seems to be a promising option for restoring fertility, especially in conjunction with other options like immature oocyte retrieval, in vitro maturation of oocytes, oocyte vitrification, or embryo cryopreservation. It seems that in vitro maturation is a useful strategy because it improves oocyte or cryopreservation outcome in breast cancer patients undergoing ovarian stimulation for fertility preservation., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The aim of this review is to analyze the efficacy of different dopamine agonists in the prevention of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS). Cabergoline, quinagolide and bromocriptine are the most common dopamine agonists used. There are wide clinical variations among the trials in the starting time (from the day of human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) to the day following oocyte retrieval); the duration of the treatment (4-21 days), the dose of cabergoline (0.5 mg or 0.25 mg orally) and in the regimens used. At present, the best known effective regimen is 0.5 mg of cabergoline for 8 days or rectal bromocriptine at a daily dose of 2.5 mg for 16 days. Dopamine agonists have shown significant evidences of their efficacy in the prevention of moderate and early-onset OHSS (9.41%), compared with a placebo (21.45%), which cannot be confirmed for the treatment of late OHSS. It would be advisable to start with the treatment on the day of hCG injection or preferably a few hours earlier. The use of dopamine agonists should be indicated in patients at high risk of OHSS, as well as in patients with a history of previous OHSS even without evident signs of the syndrome.

A number of studies have indicated that testicular macrophages play an important role in regulating steroidogenesis of Leydig cells and maintain homeostasis within the testis. The current paper deals with macrophages (CD68 positive cells) and Leydig cells in patients with nonobstructive azoospermia (NOA). Methods employed included histological analysis on semi- and ultrathin sections, immunohistochemistry, morphometry, and hormone analysis in the blood serum. Histological analysis pointed out certain structural changes of macrophages and Leydig cells in NOA group of patients when compared to controls. In the testis interstitium, an increased presence of CD68 positive cells has been noted. Leydig cells in NOA patients displayed a kind of a mosaic picture across the same bioptic sample: both normal and damaged Leydig cells with pronounced vacuolisation and various intensity of expression of testosterone have been observed. Stereological analysis indicated a significant increase in volume density of both CD68 positive and vacuolated Leydig cells and a positive correlation between the volume densities of these cell types. The continuous gonadotropin overstimulation of Leydig cells, together with a negative paracrine action of macrophages, could result in the damage of steroidogenesis and deficit of testosterone in situ.

The aim of this review is to analyze the relationship between the preovulatory progesterone (P) rise and the in vitro fertilization (IVF) pregnancy outcome. It also investigates the sources and effects of P level increase, including the underlying mechanisms and potential strategies in preventing its elevation during ovarian stimulation. The origin of production of P in the early follicular phase is adrenal which shifts toward the ovaries prior to the ovulation. Several factors contribute to the etiology of P level increase including the number of multiple follicles, the overdose of gonadotropins and poor ovarian response. Nowadays, the influence of the preovulatory P rise on IVF outcome remains controversial. Several authors have failed to demonstrate any negative impact, while others reported a detrimental effect associated with the rise of P. It seems that P rise (≤ 1.5 ng/ml or 4.77 nmol/l) may have deleterious effects on endometrial receptivity, namely, accelerating the endometrial maturation process that subsequently narrows the time-frame for implantation and thus decreases pregnancy rates. To prevent a P rise, it might be preferable to use milder stimulation protocols, earlier trigger of ovulation, cryopreservation of all embryos and transfer in the natural cycle.

Spontaneous forms of the ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (sOHSS) are nearly always reported between 8 and 14 weeks of pregnancy and also with follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) producing pituitary adenoma. The syndrome has been previously reported in rare instances of increased production of human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) such as multiple pregnancies, hydatiforme mole, polycystic ovary disease and elevated concentrations of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) in hypothyreoidism. High levels of these hormones are able to stimulate by natural promiscuous activation the wild-type FSHr, resulting in sporadic presentations of the syndrome. Since 2003, only six different activating FSHr gene mutations have been reported in cases of familial or habitual sOHSS. In addition to five mutations which have been found in the transmembrane helices (Asp567Asn, Asp567Gly, Thr449Ile, Thr449Ala, Ile545Thr), the first germline mutation (c.383C > A, p. Ser 128 Tyr) in the extracelullar domain was identified. All five mutants were abnormally activated by TSH and normal levels of hCG while displaying constitutive activity. In contrast to these mutations, the p.Ser128Tyr mutant displayed an increase in sensitivity only toward hCG. Accordingly, the mutated FSHrs, may be hyperstimulated by the pregnancy-derived hCG or TSH, inducing the occurrence of the syndrome. In the differential diagnosis, malignancy, pregnancy luteoma and hyperreactio luteinalis would have to be excluded. In almost all of the cases the disease regresses spontaneously and could be managed expectantly or conservatively, but with termination of pregnancy or surgery in cases of complications.

The aim of the present study was to analyze retrospectively the safety and success rates of single- and two-dose methotrexate (MTX) protocols for the treatment of hemodynamically stable cases of ectopic pregnancy at University Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Zagreb University Hospital Center, during a five-year period. The study evaluated MTX treatment efficacy in 35 women with ectopic pregnancies in relation to the initial levels of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) and progesterone. Successful treatment was recorded in 32/35 women, 24/25 on single dose MTX and 8/10 on double dose MTX, whereas 3/35 patients underwent laparoscopy. The mean initial hCG level in all 35 patients on day 0 was 657.54 +/- 592.4 IU/L; 572.99 +/- 488.10 IU/L in those successfully treated with MTX and 1560.30 +/- 890.70 IU/L in those requiring additional laparoscopy (p < 0.005). The mean initial hCG level was 393.10 +/- 305.9 IU/L in patients successfully treated with a single dose of MTX and 973.5 +/- 722.40 IU/L in those with an additional dose of MTX (p < 0.002). The mean initial progesterone level was 16.36 +/-10.70 nmol/L in 35 MTX-treated ectopic pregnancy patients, 13.64 +/- 8.89 nmol/L in those with treatment success and 28.45 +/- 11.32 nmol/L in cases of treatment failure (p < 0.05). The mean level of progesterone on day 0 was 12.74 +/- 830 nmol/L in patients successfully treated with a single dose of MTX and 26.10 +/- 18.80 nmol/L in patients treated with double-dose MTX (p < 0.006). It is concluded that pretreatment values of hCG and progesterone are inversely related to medicamentous treatment success in selected cases ofhemodynamically stable patients, thus they may be used as an important predictor in the management of ectopic pregnancy treated with MTX.

Hypersecretion of prolactin by lactotroph cells of the anterior pituitary may lead to hyperprolactinemia in physiological, pathological and idiopathic conditions. Most patients with idiopathic hyperprolactinemia may have radiologically undetected microprolactinomas, but some may present other causes of hyperprolactinemia described as macroprolactinemia. This condition corresponds to the predominance of higher molecular mass prolactin forms (big-big prolactin, MW > 150 kDa), that have been postulated to represent prolactin monomer complexed with anti-prolactin immunoglobulins or autoantibodies. The prevalence of macroprolactinemia in hyperprolactinemic populations between 15-46% has been reported. In the pathophysiology of macroprolactinemia it seems that pituitary prolactin has antigenicity, leading to the production of anti-prolactin autoantibodies, and these antibodies reduce prolactin bioactivity and delay prolactin clearance. Antibody-bound prolactin is big enough to be confined to vascular spaces, and therefore macroprolactinemia develops due to the delayed clearance of prolactin rather than increased production. Although the clinical symptoms are less frequent in macroprolactinemic patients, they could not be differentiated from true hyperprolactinemic patients, on the basis of clinical features alone. Although gel filtration chromatography (GFC) is known to be the gold standard for detecting macroprolactin, the polyethylene glycol precipitation (PEG) method has offered a simple, cheap, and highly suitable alternative. In conclusion, macroprolactinemia can be considered a benign condition with low incidence of clinical symptoms and therefore hormonal and imaging investigations as well as medical or surgical treatment and prolonged follow-up are not necessary.

Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome is the most dangerous complication following the administration of gonadotropins. There is no preventive and pharmacological intervention that can fully prevent development of this syndrome. The best strategy to reduce the incidence of the condition is to identify the patients at risk before ovarian stimulation and to recognize potential predictors. A history of ovarian hyperstimulation is an important risk factor for recurrence of the syndrome. The risk of the syndrome is evident with elevated gonadotropin dosages and with the use of gonadotropin releasing hormone agonists. Human chorionic gonadotropin is the main risk factor. The combination of pretreatment diagnosis of polycystic ovary disease and estradiol of 4500 pg/ mL gives higher prediction rates for the risk factor. Serum concentration of inhibin is not a reliable predictor of the syndrome. Recent evaluation of antimüllerian hormone as a reliable predictor candidate, vascular endothelial growth factor with cadherin as indicators of vascular permeability, and detection of mutations in the follicular stimulating hormone receptor as predictors of severity offer new insights in the prognosis of the syndrome. Identification of these prognostic markers in patients at risk would be very useful for prevention of the syndrome prior to the appearance of symptoms.

Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome is the most serious iatrogenic complication resulting from ovarian stimulation. Currently there is no clear evidence of absolute efficacy for most of standard preventive and curative methods. Recent studies indicate that human chorionic gonadotropin increases vascular endothelial growth factor, vascular endothelial cadherin and vascular permeability via endothelial adherence junctions. Vascular endothelial growth factor plays a pivotal role in the pathophysiology of the condition and therefore vascular endothelial factor antagonism has been suggested for the prevention of the syndrome. Since vascular endothelial growth factor is also a physiological regulator of folliculogenesis, progesterone secretion and endometrial angiogenesis, its complete inactivation by specific blockers could produce undesirable effects interfering with early pregnancy development and therefore they cannot be used clinically. Recently, low doses of dopamine agonists (cabergoline) have been shown to counteract vascular endothelial growth factor induced vascular hyperpermeability, reducing the incidence of the syndrome by prophylactic treatment without compromising pregnancy outcome. The absence of undesirable side effects could make cabergoline an effective and safe etiologic approach for the prevention and treatment of the syndrome. A novel approach has suggested that metformin may also be helpful in the syndrome prevention in women with or without polycystic ovary disease.

The ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS) is typically an iatrogenic complication of induction ovulation occurring during the luteal phase or early pregnancy. However, the spontaneous form of OHSS is extremely rare and always reported during pregnancy. Several cases have been observed during multiple pregnancies and other cases were associated with hypothyroidism. Moreover, a few mutations of the follicle-stimulation hormone receptor (FSHr) were recently described in spontaneous OHSS and normal levels of human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG). In these cases, a molecular basis for the pathogenesis of the spontaneous OHSS was identified. These mutations displayed promiscuous sensitivity and activation by both HCG and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). The disease always occurs in the presence of either exogenous or endogenous HCG which is thought to play a crucial role in the development of OHSS. The hallmark of OHSS is an increase in capillary permeability resulting in a fluid shift from the intravascular compartment into the third space. It is assumed that HCG induces the release of certain ovarian vasoactive substances or mediators that have potent and direct systemic effects on the vascular system. It was demonstrated that the endothelium, along with the ovary is a primary target for HCG. Of all the different vasoactive components, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is the principal mediator and the most responsible for increased capillary permeability. It is produced and secreted in the ovary or in the endothelium, and acts through the VEGF receptor-2 or high affinity receptors (KDR and flt 1), respectively. In addition to VEGF HCG may trigger activation of the renin-angiotensin system and kinin-kallikrein system together with releasing of interleukins (6,18), endothelial-cell adhesion molecules, von Willebrand factor, angiogenin and endothelin-1, that also increase vascular permeability.

The prevalence of uterine myomas during pregnancy is estimated to range from 0.3% to 2.6%. Although leiomyomas usually remain asymptomatic, in one often cases they may be complicated. The management of uterine fibroids during pregnancy is largely conservative and surgical removal is generally delayed until post partum. A 37-year-old pregnant woman (15 weeks) with a history of gynecologic examination several hours before presented with lower abdominal pain and signs of acute abdomen. She was para-2, as she had delivered a healthy child 12 years before, and current pregnancy was uncomplicated until presentation. Intra-abdominal hemorrhage was suspected and she underwent immediate exploratory laparotomy, which revealed massive hemoperitoneum. A subserous uterine leiomyoma of 8.5x6.5 cm was found in the fundus area, with an actively bleeding ruptured vessel on its dome. Myomectomy was successfully performed and 1.5 liter of blood and blood clots were evacuated from the peritoneal cavity. The histology report showed sections of interlacing bundles of smooth muscles with areas of bleeding and necrotic degeneration. The postoperative course and subsequent antenatal period were uneventful. The woman went into spontaneous labor at 38 weeks and delivered vaginally a healthy male baby. This rare case ofintra-abdominal hemorrhage due to bleeding myoma supports other recent studies, which have demonstrated that myomectomy may be successfully performed during pregnancy in selected circumstances.

Unilateral twin tubal gestations are extremely rare with a reported incidence of 1 per 200 ectopic pregnancies. In recent years, the incidence of heterotopic pregnancy associated with in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer (IVF-ET) has risen to 1%-3% of achieved pregnancies. We report a very rare case of a 32-year-old woman with 6-year primary infertility with unilateral twin tubal pregnancy and subsequent heterotopic pregnancy following two IVF treatments. Her gynecologic history was notable for previous distal occlusion of the left fallopian tube treated by laparoscopic reconstructive surgery. After ovulation induction and IVF with ET of two embryos, transvaginal sonography at 6 weeks revealed two separate gestational sacs in the left adnexal mass. Emergency laparoscopy showed unruptured ampullar pregnancy and salpingectomy was carried out. On second IVF two years later, after ovulation induction and ET of three embryos, endovaginal sonography at 6 weeks revealed only one intrauterine sac. One week later, the patient complained of intermittent episodes of lower abdominal pain in the right quadrant. Ultrasound confirmed intrauterine pregnancy and revealed right tubal gestational sac. Laparoscopy showed unruptured right ampullar pregnancy and salpingectomy was performed. Histology of salpingectomy specimens showed signs of chronic infection in both tubes. The intrauterine pregnancy progressed to term when a healthy infant was delivered vaginally. Gynecologists should always consider the possibility of ectopic pregnancy in pregnancies following IVF-ET, particularly in cases with tubal disease and abdominal pain.

The aim of the present study was to analyze the effect of abdominal myomectomy on subsequent fertility. Medical records of 78 women having undergone myomectomy between 1980 and 2000 were retrospectively analyzed. A questionnaire was e-mailed to all women. The overall pregnancy rate in 66 patients that attempted pregnancy following myomectomy was 59.1%. The pre-myomectomy abortion rate of 35.4% fell to 22% after myomectomy. The incidence of cesarean section before and after myomectomy was 7.3 and 15.6%, respectively. Age above 30 at the time of myomectomy significantly reduced the chance of conception (P<0.0001). Subsequent fertility was significantly reduced by greater number and deeper localization of myomas (P<0.005 to P<0.001). The coexistence of pelvic infection and adhesiolysis significantly reduced the pregnancy rate (P<0.0001). Recurrence of uterine leiomyomas was recorded in 12.8% of study patients. More than half of the women with uterine leiomyomas were able to conceive and nearly half (48.5%) of them were able to bear children following myomectomy. Patient age at the time of myomectomy, the number and localization of leiomyomas, and coexistence of pelvic adhesions significantly reduced subsequent fertility. In spite of the emergence of new treatment options, it is evident that conventional abdominal myomectomy still has a major role in the treatment of women with fibroids.