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Background On August 5th, 2015, 3 million gallons of acid mine drainage was accidentally discharged from the Gold King Mine near Silverton, Colorado into Cement Creek which is a tributary to the Animas and San Juan Rivers. The government-initiated risk assessment only assessed a recreational scenario (i.e. hiker drinking from the river), failing to recognize the deep connection of the Dine (Navajo) with the San Juan River. Methods Utilizing a mixed-methods approach we determined the impacts of the 2015 Gold King Mine Spill (GKMS or Spill) on Dine activities. We developed a questionnaire to collect pre- and post-GKMS Dine activity frequency and duration. Navajo Nation Community Health Representatives administered the questionnaire to 63 Dine adults and 27 children living in three Navajo communities along the River. Results Through analysis of the focus group transcripts we identified 43 unique activities between the Dine and San Juan River. There were significant reductions in the total number, frequency, and duration of livelihood, dietary, recreational, cultural/spiritual and arts and craft activities. On average, Dine activities with the San Juan River following the GKMS decreased by 56.2%. Significance The significant reduction in activities following the GKMS may lead to long-term trauma, impacting the ability of the Dine to pass down teachings to their children affecting future generations to come. The 43 distinct activities between the Dine and the San Juan River highlight the importance for scientists and disaster responders to consider cultural and spiritual impacts when responding to environmental disasters and conducting risk assessments among Indigenous communities.

During the last 50 years, construction of dams in the western United States declined. This is partly because of increasing recognition of diverse and unintended social-ecological consequences of dams. Today, resource managers are recognizing the wide array of tradeoffs and are including a more diverse group of stakeholders in decision making for individual dams. Yet decisions at the regional scale maintain a focus on a limited number of resources and objectives, leading to inefficient and inequitable outcomes. Social-ecological changes compounded by climate change challenge this management paradigm. Increasing water demands for humans and the environment and renewed interest in hydropower present opportunities for operations that include climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies while considering tradeoffs and equitable responses at the regional scale.

Tribal perspectives in water resources and education are often overlooked. Only recently, the field of hydrologic sciences began to include people in conducting science (Sivapalan et al. 2012) and to value indigenous perspectives with western science (Huntington 2002; Redsteer et al. 2012). The April 2018 issue of Journal of Contemporary Water Research & Education (JCWRE) explores emerging voices in tribal communities related to water resources quality and quantity and impacts to tribal water resources such as climate change and water use. This special issue begins with three foundational papers, providing a baseline understanding on water quality regulation, water quality disparities, and tribal economies as they relate to water settlements. The special issue features articles focusing on various water challenges facing tribes and the role of tribal colleges in addressing these challenges. There are less than 0.3% of Native American graduate students and post-doctorates in Science and Engineering and only a handful in hydrologic sciences and related sciences (NCSES 2016). While tribal lands are rich in natural resources and have significant water challenges (Cozetto et al. 2007; Smith and Frehner 2010), it is very unique that 67% of the lead authors are Native American including three Native American faculty, three Native American graduate students, and one Tribal College and University (TCU) Faculty. A deep discussion on water challenges facing tribes and Native American scientists working on these challenges are emerging voices of tribal perspectives in water resources.

The Gold King Mine Spill (Spill) occurred in August 2015 upstream from Silverton, Colorado and released three million gallons of contaminated water into the Animas River, a tributary to the San Juan River that flows across the Navajo Nation. Using principles of community-engaged research, the Gold King Mine Spill Diné Exposure Project co-developed a culturally anchored approach to conduct focus groups and analyze narratives collected in three Diné (Navajo) communities along the San Juan River within 9 months of the Spill. Focus group questions were designed to document the socio-cultural impacts of the Spill. This paper: (1) outlines the partnerships and approvals, (2) describes focus group design, training, data collection and analysis, and (3) reflects on the use of a culturally anchored approach in Indigenous, specifically Diné-centered research. Diné social and cultural etiquette and concepts of relationality were used to adapt standard (non-Indigenous) qualitative methods. Findings describe community perceptions of short-term impacts of the disaster, as well as past and present injustices, communication related to the Spill, and concerns of persistent threats to Diné lifeways. The culturally anchored approach was critical in fostering trust with Diné participants and aligned with the candor of the discussions.

Water in the Native World: The Intersection of Hydrology and Indigenous Knowledge; Pablo, Montana, 1–4 August 2018

The organizers of the 2014 US National Climate Assessment (NCA) made a concerted effort to reach out to and collaborate with Indigenous peoples, resulting in the most comprehensive information to date on climate change impacts to Indigenous peoples in a US national assessment. Yet, there is still much room for improvement in assessment processes to ensure adequate recognition of Indigenous perspectives and Indigenous knowledge systems. This article discusses the process used in creating the Indigenous Peoples, Land, and Resources NCA chapter by a team comprised of tribal members, agencies, academics, and nongovernmental organizations, who worked together to solicit, collect, and synthesize traditional knowledges and data from a diverse array of Indigenous communities across the US. It also discusses the synergy and discord between traditional knowledge systems and science and the emergence of cross-cutting issues and vulnerabilities for Indigenous peoples. The challenges of coalescing information about climate change and its impacts on Indigenous communities are outlined along with recommendations on the types of information to include in future assessment outputs. We recommend that future assessments – not only NCA, but other relevant local, regional, national, and international efforts aimed at the translation of climate information and assessments into meaningful actions – should support integration of Indigenous perspectives in a sustained way that builds respectful relationships and effectively engages Indigenous communities. Given the large number of tribes in the US and the current challenges and unique vulnerabilities of Indigenous communities, a special report focusing solely on climate change and Indigenous peoples is warranted.

On August 5th 2015, the Gold King Mine Spill released 3 million gallons of acid mine drainage-containing arsenic (As) and lead (Pb) into a tributary of the San Juan River, which flows through the N...

This paper provides an overview of climate change impacts on tribal water resources and the subsequent cascading effects on the livelihoods and cultures of American Indians and Alaska Natives living on tribal lands in the U.S. A hazards and vulnerability framework for understanding these impacts is first presented followed by context on the framework components, including climate, hydrologic, and ecosystem changes (i.e. hazards) and tribe-specific vulnerability factors (socioeconomic, political, infrastructural, environmental, spiritual and cultural), which when combined with hazards lead to impacts. Next regional summaries of impacts around the U.S. are discussed. Although each tribal community experiences unique sets of impacts because of their individual history, culture, and geographic setting, many of the observed impacts are common among different groups and can be categorized as impacts on—1) water supply and management (including water sources and infrastructure), 2) aquatic species important for culture and subsistence, 3) ranching and agriculture particularly from climate extremes (e.g., droughts, floods), 4) tribal sovereignty and rights associated with water resources, fishing, hunting, and gathering, and 5) soil quality (e.g., from coastal and riverine erosion prompting tribal relocation or from drought-related land degradation). The paper finishes by highlighting potentially relevant research questions based on the five impact categories.

Wildfire can significantly change watershed hydrological processes resulting in increased risks for flooding, erosion, and debris flow. The goal of this study was to evaluate the predictive capability of hydrological models in estimating post-fire runoff using data from the San Dimas Experimental Forest (SDEF), San Dimas, California. Four methods were chosen representing different types of post-fire runoff prediction methods, including a Rule of Thumb, Modified Rational Method (MODRAT), HEC-HMS Curve Number, and KINematic Runoff and EROSion Model 2 (KINEROS2). Results showed that simple, empirical peak flow models performed acceptably if calibrated correctly. However, these models do not reflect hydrological mechanisms and may not be applicable for predictions outside the area where they were calibrated. For pre-fire conditions, the Curve Number approach implemented in HEC-HMS provided more accurate results than KINEROS2, whereas for post-fire conditions, the opposite was observed. Such a trend may imply fundamental changes from pre- to post-fire hydrology. Analysis suggests that the runoff generation mechanism in the watershed may have temporarily changed due to fire effects from saturation-excess runoff or subsurface storm dominated complex mechanisms to an infiltration-excess dominated mechanism. Infiltration modeling using the Hydrus-1D model supports this inference. Results of this study indicate that physically-based approaches may better reflect this trend and have the potential to provide consistent and satisfactory prediction.

Stakeholder participation is a foundation of good water governance. Good groundwater governance typically involves the co-production of knowledge about the groundwater system. Models provide a vehicle for producing this knowledge, as well as a “boundary object” around which scientists and stakeholders can convene the co-production process. Through co-production, stakeholders and scientific experts can engage in exchanges that create system knowledge not otherwise achievable. The process involves one-way transfer of information, active two-way conversations, and integration of multiple kinds of knowledge into shared understanding. In the Upper Santa Cruz River basin in Arizona, USA, the University of Arizona Water Resources Research Center (WRRC) convened a project aimed at providing scientific underpinnings for groundwater planning and management. This project, entitled Groundwater, Climate, and Stakeholder Engagement, serves as a case study employing the first two stages of knowledge co-production using a hydrological model. Through an iterative process that included two-way communication, stakeholders provided critical input to hydrologic modeling analyses. Acting as a bridging organization, the WRRC facilitated a co-production process, involving location-specific and transferability workshops, which resulted in new knowledge and capacity for applying the model to novel problems.

Prior research has shown a log-log correlation between ex situ air permeability (k a ) measured at a matric potential of -50 and -100 cm H 2 O and saturated hydraulic conductivity (K sat ) in agricultural soils. We examined the applicability of a previously established log k a vs. log K sat predictive relation in unburned and burned woodland-chaparral and coniferous soils. Specifically, we measured in situ k a in the field using the soil corer air permeameter (SCAP) and measured laboratory K sat on soil cores. To determine postfire soil physical changes, K sat was transformed into water permeability, k w. Then k a and k w were compared in unburned and burned soils. The median k a was lower and median k w was higher in burned than unburned woodland-chaparral soils. The median k a and k w were both lower in burned than unburned coniferous soils. Despite these effects, the 95% prediction interval of the predictive relation includes 80% of the burned soils and 83% of all desert soils. The RMSE values of the predicted log K sat and measured log K sat were 0.371, 0.552, 0.588, and 0.511 m d -1 for unburned and burned woodland-chaparral and unburned and burned coniferous soils, respectively. In comparison, the RMSE for the predicted and measured log K sat was 0.654 m d -1 for an agricultural data set. The overall RMSE for unburned and burned soils including the agricultural soils was 0.551 m d -1 . This suggests that the predictive relation is applicable for unburned and burned desert soils for in situ k a measurements.

Previous research has established a correlation between air permeability ( k a ) and saturated hydraulic conductivity for agricultural soils based on ex situ air permeability (k ex situ ). In situ air permeability ( k in situ ) measurements in nonagricultural soils, however, have shown a decrease in correlation that may be attributed to soil anisotropy. Our objectives were: (i) to examine the effects of anisotropy on k in situ using a three-dimensional air flow model; (ii) to develop a method to identify anisotropy using k in situ and k ex situ measurements; and (iii) to determine the sample volume of an air permeameter as a function of the permeameter design and the anisotropy ratio. Numerical results showed that the k a measured in situ in anisotropic media results in some average of the horizontal and vertical permeabilities. The averaging depends on the degree of anisotropy and the ratio of the diameter to the insertion depth of the permeameter. Therefore, a shape factor developed for an isotropic soil can give unreliable results. We determined that paired in situ and ex situ permeability measurements can be used to infer the anisotropy ratio. This approach is more accurate if the vertical permeability, k a z , is higher than the horizontal, k a x . The sample volume does not extend outside of the air permeameter for high k a x / k a z . It is stretched vertically for low k a x / k a z . A field experiment showed qualitative agreement with model predictions, but anisotropy alone was not able to fully explain the difference between k in situ and k ex situ .

Guidelines for Considering Traditional Knowledges (TKs) in Climate Change Initiatives is a publication intended to be an informational resource for tribes, agencies, and organizations across the United States interested in understanding TKs in the context of climate change. The Third National Climate Assessment issued in May 2014 contained a chapter dedicated to the impact of climate change on tribal peoples. In light of the increasing recognition of the significance of traditional knowledges (TKs) in relation to climate change, a self-organized, informal group of indigenous persons, staff of indigenous governments and organizations, and experts with experience working with issues concerning traditional knowledges (The Climate and Traditional Knowledges Workgroup – CTKW), felt compelled to develop a framework to increase understanding of issues relating to access and protection of TKs in climate initiatives and interactions between holders of TKs and non-tribal partners. The Guidelines were originally developed to inform the Department of Interior’s Advisory Committee on Climate Change and Natural Resource Science (ACCCNRS) in May 2014.

Measurements of air permeability are useful both directly, to assess gas phase movement through soils, and indirectly as a proxy for soil hydraulic conductivity. Several designs have been presented for field-based air permeameters; however, none are suitable for use in gravelly desert soils. We designed an air permeameter compatible with a standard soil corer to facilitate insertion into desert soils. The soil corer air permeameter (SCAP) uses digital components to measure flow rates under low-pressure gradients to improve accuracy, ease of use, and portability. The SCAP allows the extraction of undisturbed soil samples for laboratory analysis, providing direct comparisons of air permeability ( k a) with other soil physical and hydraulic properties. The soil sample can be extracted before measuring k a, thus removing the need for a shape factor to account for divergent flow. In an analysis of the SCAP's performance, field testing showed that digital components operate well under field conditions; however, spanner wrench insertion holes must be sealed to provide correct k a measurements. The Jalbert and Dane shape factor for in situ k a is applicable for tilled, unstructured soils. However, significant soil-specific variability exists in the shape factor, so we recommend measuring ex situ k a in the field, where possible. Ex situ field k a and laboratory hydraulic conductivity ( K sat) measurements were compared and air to water permeability ratios were calculated to determine structural changes due to water saturation. For soils that could be extracted with minimal structural change, we found good correlation between k a and K sat and reasonable agreement with previously published results.

The Southwestern United States is home to 182 federally recognized tribes (Federal Register 2010, Figure 17.1). California has the largest number of tribes (109), and the largest Native American population in the country (Table 17.1). Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah are also home to seven of the most populous tribes, with populations ranging from 10,000 to over 300,000 (U.S. Census 2010). Nine tribes in the Southwest are considered “large land-holding tribes,” five of which are among the ten largest reservations in the United States, ranging in size from 600,000 to 15 million acres (Federal Register 2010). More than one-third of the land in Arizona is tribal land.

The objectives of the research are to determine the importance and impact of spatial and temporal variation of soil hydraulic properties on calculated runoff volumes. The study also addresses the importance of storm frequency and its relationship to rainfall/runoff processes and spatial variation of soil hydraulic properties. A pedotransfer function, based on soil physical properties, was developed to predict the variation of antecedent moisture content (AMC) with increasing time between storm events. The effective hydraulic conductivity (Keff) was evaluated at a value of half the calculated saturated hydraulic conductivity. The AMC was varied for three different scenarios on 7 individual soil surfaces located within a 228 km 2 (88 mi 2 ) arid watershed in the Mojave Desert. The modeling software packages used for the study were Rosetta, HYDRUS-1D, and FLO-2D. All data were geospatially rectified on the watershed (using ArcGIS) to account for the spatial variation of the soil parameters. Temporal variation of water content on each soil surface was evaluated using atmospheric demand and the soil properties over a 5-day period. The results show that the spatial variability of Ks and AMC have considerable effect on predicted flowrates due to varied precipitation and varied soil water content, which for the upper watershed were shown to increase as storm frequency decreases (i.e., return interval increases). As the drying time increases from 1 to 5 days, the calculated runoff reduces 46 percent (at the upper watershed) for the 100-year models. The model shows that the floodwave from upstream does progress to the outfall for the 500-year event; however, the majority of run-on and runoff infiltrates on the lower portion of the watershed for the 100-year and higher frequency events.

SummaryEpisodic streamflow events in the Upper Santa Cruz River recharge a shallow alluvial aquifer that is an essential water resource for the surrounding communities. The complex natural variability of the rainfall-driven streamflow events introduces a water resources management challenge for the region. In this study, we assessed the impact of projected climate change on regional water resources management. We analyzed climate change projections of precipitation for the Upper Santa Cruz River from eight dynamically downscaled Global Circulation Models (GCMs). Our analysis indicates an increase (decrease) in the frequency of occurrence of dry (wet) summers. The winter rainfall projections indicate an increased frequency of both dry and wet winter seasons, which implies lower chance for medium-precipitation winters. The climate analysis results were also compared with resampled coarse GCMs and bias adjusted and statistically downscaled CMIP3 and CMIP5 projections readily available for the contiguous U.S. The impact of the projected climatic change was assessed through a water resources management case study. The hydrologic framework utilized includes a rainfall generator of likely scenarios and a series of hydrologic models that estimate the groundwater recharge and the change in groundwater storage. We conclude that climatic change projections increase the uncertainty and further exacerbate the already complicated water resources management task. The ability to attain an annual water supply goal, the accrued annual water deficit and the potential for replenishment of the aquifer depend considerably on the selected management regime.

The case of the Pyramid Lake Paiute Tribe exemplifies tribal vulnerabilities as a result of climate change. Preliminary socio-economic data and analysis reveal that the tribe’s vulnerability to climate change is related to cultural and economic dependence on Pyramid Lake, while external socio-economic vulnerability factors influence adaptive capacity and amplify potential impacts. Reduced water supplies as a consequence of climate change would result in a compounded reduction of inflows to Pyramid Lake, thus potentially impacting the spawning and sustenance of a cultural livelihood, the endangered cui-ui fish (Chasmistes cujus). Meanwhile, limited economic opportunities and dwindling federal support constrain tribal adaptive capacity. Factors that contribute to tribal adaptive capacity include: sustainability-based values, technical capacity for natural resource management, proactive initiatives for the control of invasive-species, strong external scientific networks, and remarkable tribal awareness of climate change.

As climate change research burgeons at a remarkable pace, it is intersecting with research regarding indigenous and rural people in fascinating ways. Yet, there remains a significant gap in integrated quantitative and qualitative methods for studying rural climate change perception and policy support, especially with regard to Native Americans. The objectives of this paper are to utilize our multi-method approach of integrating surveys, interviews, video, literature and fieldwork in innovative ways to: (1) address the aforementioned gap in rural studies, while advancing knowledge regarding effective methodologies for investigation of linkages between socio-political variables and climate change perceptions; and (2) perform comparative primary research regarding the climate change assumptions, risk perceptions, policy preferences, observations and knowledge among rural Nevada's tribes and tribal environmental leaders, non-native ranchers and farmers, and America's general public. The results of this study have ramifications for similar populations in arid and semi-arid lands, particularly in the U.S. Southwest.