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PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Allergic disorders are the result of complex interactions between genetic predisposition and environmental exposures. Elucidating how specific environmental exposures contribute to allergic diseases in adults is crucial, especially as the world population ages in a rapidly changing environment. RECENT FINDINGS: The effects of environmental exposures on allergic diseases remain understudied in adults. While epidemiological studies suggest various environmental exposures are associated with the development and exacerbation of allergic diseases, further longitudinal studies are needed across various age groups in adults to pinpoint the exposures of concerns and the time windows of susceptibility. Mechanistic studies in adults are few. A multi-component strategy targeting several allergens has been conditionally recommended for asthma, but recent findings on mitigation strategies remain limited. SUMMARY: Further research on how environmental exposures cause and exacerbate allergic disorders is needed in adults, particularly across disease phenotypes. The effects of mitigation strategies against environmentally-induced adult allergic diseases remain large research gaps. A better understanding of how and which environmental exposures contribute to allergic disorders is necessary to identify patients who are at higher risk and would benefit from specific interventions.

The differential diagnoses for eosinophilia include allergic, infectious, autoimmune, and neoplastic diseases. We presented the case of a 79-year-old man with eosinophilia and elevated immunoglobulin E that persisted despite adequate treatment for possible environmental exposures. Further specialized testing based on his initial workup led to his diagnosis. This case highlights the importance of sequential and targeted testing to evaluate for rare causes of eosinophilia.

Objective To determine whether there are differences in the outcomes of native joint septic arthritis (SA) in adults, based on medical versus surgical management. Methods A 10-year retrospective single-center study was conducted of patients admitted to a tertiary care hospital between January 1, 2006 and December 31, 2015 with a diagnosis of SA to compare outcomes based on the management approach taken: medical (bedside closed-needle joint aspiration) versus surgical (arthrotomy/arthroscopy). Evaluated outcomes included joint recovery, time to recovery, length of stay, disposition to home versus rehabilitation unit, recurrence of SA in the same joint, and mortality. Results Of 118 confirmed cases of SA, 48 were in prosthetic joints and 70 were in native joints, and 61 met our inclusion criteria. Forty-one (67%) patients received surgery, and 20 (33%) received closed-needle aspiration. There was no statistically significant difference in long-term outcomes between the two groups at 12 months. Patients managed medically were more likely to experience full recovery at 3 months and were less likely to need short-term rehabilitation. Conclusions Medical management with closed-needle aspiration may be an adequate approach to the treatment of native joint infections.

To better understand COVID-19 infection in patients receiving biologic and immunomodulatory therapies, we evaluated prevalence and outcomes for symptomatic cases of COVID-19 at a large therapeutic infusion center in New York City during the height of the pandemic. 2074 patients received treatment with biologic infusions at our center between March and May 2020, and 34 patients developed symptomatic COVID-19 infection, for an overall low rate of 1.64%. The majority of infections and deaths were in a small subset of patients with a primary immunodeficiency. Patients with inflammatory or autoimmune conditions requiring biologic therapies tended to have mild cases. Higher inflammatory responses were observed in patients who died.

Patient: Male, 36 Final Diagnosis: TB paradoxical reaction Symptoms: Back pain • diplopia • Headache Medication: — Clinical Procedure: — Specialty: Infectious Diseases Objective: Unusual clinical course Background: Paradoxical reactions to tuberculosis (TB) are clinical or radiological worsening of prior tuberculous lesions or the development of new lesions upon treatment with appropriate anti-tuberculosis therapy (ATT). This phenomenon has been described in both HIV-seropositive and HIV-seronegative patients. Although historically estimated to occur in 6–30% of HIV-seronegative patients with TB, the phenomenon is often under-recognized in the current era, particularly in countries of low TB prevalence. We describe a case of a TB paradoxical reaction affecting the CNS and spine in an HIV-seronegative individual who received clinical care in the U.S. Case Report: A 36-year-old HIV-seronegative refugee from Eritrea presented to the hospital with fever, back pain, and headache shortly after arriving to the U.S. He was diagnosed with TB meningitis and Pott’s disease and was started on ATT. He developed worsening clinical symptoms, including headaches, transient diplopia, and mood disturbances, as well as new radiologic abnormalities in the brain (tuberculomas) and spine (abnormal enhancement) despite appropriate ATT. He received prolonged 4-drug ATT and steroids as well as changes in his ATT regimen, and multiple attempts were made to biopsy the brain and spine to address concerns for radiologic changes. Eventually, he was discharged 1 year later with clinical improvement and full neurologic recovery. Conclusions: Radiologic and clinical findings due to paradoxical reactions may be unfamiliar to clinicians in countries with low TB prevalence and inadvertently lead to either inadequate management such as the underappreciation of the clinical signs and symptoms indicating potential severity of CNS paradoxical reaction, or conversely overly invasive approaches in a patient who is otherwise clinically improving. Increasing awareness about extrapulmonary paradoxical reactions in such patients is crucial for ensuring appropriate diagnostic approaches and timely clinical management.

Diastereoselective catalytic hydrogenation of pyruvic acid esters, amides, and their Schiff bases has been well studied over a long period to show that proline is one of the most effective chiral auxiliaries. Proline derivatives have been used as auxiliaries in the diastereoselective catalytic hydrogenation of pyruvamide Schiff bases. The diastereoselective hydrogenation resulted in up to a 78% enantiomeric excess of the amino acid derived from the hydrolysis of the dipeptide products. The chelation hypothesis explains the stereochemistry of the catalytic hydrogenation using (S)-proline esters in the amide moiety and the two chiral centers in the amide and Schiff base moieties.

Plasma-jet in aqueous solutions is known to disproportionate water to give hydrogen and hydroxyl radicals. Maleic acid, which is a carbon–carbon double bond bearing dicarboxylic acid, underwent add...

A 64-year-old immunocompetent man developed a widespread pruritic and vesicular rash 2 weeks after receiving the zoster vaccine (Zostavax). He had fever, bandaemia with normal total white blood cell count and mild transaminitis. PCR testing of serum and skin was positive for varicella zoster virus (VZV), while serum VZV IgG was negative. The analysis of single nucleotide polymorphism by PCR and sequencing from the skin swab was consistent with the vaccine strain. The patient received 1 week of intravenous acyclovir and was discharged after all lesions had crusted. He continues to do well on follow-up with no significant complications.

Introduction of argon-arc plasma into an aqueous solution of formic acid resulted in the formation of oxalic acid. The reaction conditions for the dimerization were studied. The maximum yield of oxalic acid reached 47–50% when the reaction was carried out using sodium formate or calcium formate. Dimerization of acetic acid was also examined.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are one of the most ubiquitous organic compounds in the universe. PAHs are sometimes used as a molecular marker for biological activity, however, they are also formed by abiogenic processes. Carbon isotopic compositions of individual PAHs have important clues to clarify their origins and formation mechanisms for the better understanding in organic cosmogeochemistry of PAHs. In the Asuka-881458 carbonaceous chondrite which was recovered from Antarctica in 1989, more than 70 PAHs were identified from naphthalene to benzo(ghi)perylene, where fluoranthene and pyrene are the most abundant. Carbon isotopic compositions of individual PAHs range from −26 to 8‰ (relative to PDB). More condensed PAHs are more depleted in 13 C as the H/C ratio decreases. The carbon isotope distribution of PAHs containing more than three rings is similar to that from the Murchison meteorite, but clearly different from that of the terrestrial PAHs. The isotope distribution suggests that the PAHs in carbonaceous chondrites are formed under kinetic control rather than by thermodynamic equilibrium. In particular, two reaction pathways (‘pyrene series’ and ‘fluoranthene series’) can be distinguished assuming kinetic control. The relatively large isotopic fractionation could occur during cyclization and/or carbon addition in the interstellar or meteorite parent body environment.

Molecular distribution of low-molecular-weight monocarboxylic acids was studied in three CM2 Asuka carbonaceous chondrites (A-881280, A-881334 and A-881458), which were recovered from Antarctica by the 29th Japanese Antarctic Research Expedition in 1988. GC and GC/MS analyses identified more than 30 monocarboxylic acids in A-881458, including aliphatic and aromatic acids with various structural isomers. Isomeric phenolic compounds were also identified. The aliphatic carboxylic acids have straight-chain structures having 2 to 12 carbon atoms (C2 to C12), and branched-chain structures (C4 to C9). The quantities of straight-chain acids decrease logarithmically with increasing carbon number. At the same carbon number, a straight-chain isomer is always predominant compared to branched-chain isomers. All of the 14 possible C4, C5 and C6 aliphatic monocarboxylic acids (not including optical isomers) have been identified, although all the isomers were not reported in Murchison and Y-791198 meteorites. Of the 17 possible isomeric C7 acids, at least 14 isomers were tentatively identified by mass spectra (EI and CI mode). At C8 or above, peaks of branched-chain isomers become obscure, probably due to the large number of isomers and small concentrations. Branched-chain monocarboxylic acids over C6 have never been reported in Murchison. Although occurrence of aliphatic acids are similar between A-881458 and Murchison at C4, C5 and C6 acids, a major difference is that A-881458 as well as Y-791198 have straight- chain predominance among isomers in contrast to Murchison being branched-chain predominant. In the case of isomeric aromatic compounds such as toluic acids and cresols, m-toluic acid and p-cresol are more abundant among their isomers, respectively. The molecular distribution may not reflect thermodynamic equilibrium but rather a kinetically controlled process for their formation mechanism. The other two CM2 chondrites (A-881280 and A-881334) were depleted in carboxylic acids in spite of similar carbon contents. The depletion is not due to weathering on ice, because the degrees of weathering are small and similar among the three chondrites. Probably those latter two chondrites may have been subjected to aqueous alteration or metamorphism on their meteorite parent bodies.

Bulk carbon isotopic compositions of 26 Antarctic carbonaceous chondrites (33 specimens) are reported and discussed with relevance to the processes involved in their alteration and the existence of solvent-extractable organic matter. The δ13C values (relative to PDB) vary from -16.6 to +0.9‰. The average value (-6.2‰) is higher than that for non-Antarctic carbonaceous chondrites by -6‰. The difference may be explained by contamination of terrestrial organic carbon on non-Antarctic chondrites and/or different populations of parent bodies. Most Antarctic carbonaceous chondrites have an apparent trend (“a major sequence”) that the δ13C value becomes higher with increasing carbon content. The trend is likely to beexplained by a mixing model of two components; isotopically heavy and labile component (solvent-extractable organic matter and carbonate), and isotopically light and inert acid-insoluble component (kerogen-like matter). In addition, an unique group (altered specimens) is characterized by relatively high content and isotopically light carbon. For seven CM chondrites, δ13C values of residues after the hot H2O and HCl/HF treatment are also reported. Despite considerable isotopic variations of bulk carbon, the δ13C values of acid-insoluble residues may be classified into two groups; isotopically light (-15 to -13‰) and heavy (-9 to -7‰) ones. Most kerogen-like matters belong to the light group, which are isotopically similar to non-Antarctic kerogen-like matter. The altered specimens have isotopically light bulk carbon (∼-15‰), which is similar to those of their kerogen-like matter; they probably lost heavy components such as solvent-extractable organic matters (e.g., amino acid and carboxylic acid) and carbonates during aqueous alteration and thermal metamorphism on parent bodies. This is in accord with mineralogical and oxygen isotope studies. The presence of solvent-extractable organic matter is one of the important factors controlling bulk carbon isotopes in carbonaceous chondrites.

In response to environmental fluctuations or stresses, bacteria can activate transcriptional and phenotypic programs to coordinate an adaptive response. The intracellular pathogen Legionella pneumophila converts from a noninfectious replicative form to an infectious transmissive form when the bacterium encounters alterations in either amino acid concentrations or fatty acid biosynthesis. Here, we report that L. pneumophila differentiation is also triggered by nicotinic acid, a precursor of the central metabolite NAD + . In particular, when replicative L. pneumophila are treated with 5 mM nicotinic acid, the bacteria induce numerous transmissive-phase phenotypes, including motility, cytotoxicity toward macrophages, sodium sensitivity, and lysosome avoidance. Transcriptional profile analysis determined that nicotinic acid induces the expression of a panel of genes characteristic of transmissive-phase L. pneumophila . Moreover, an additional 213 genes specific to nicotinic acid treatment were altered. Although nearly 25% of these genes lack an assigned function, the gene most highly induced by nicotinic acid treatment encodes a putative major facilitator superfamily transporter, Lpg0273. Indeed, lpg0273 protects L. pneumophila from toxic concentrations of nicotinic acid as judged by analyzing the growth of the corresponding mutant. The broad utility of the nicotinic acid pathway to couple central metabolism and cell fate is underscored by this small metabolite's modulation of gene expression by diverse microbes, including Candida glabrata , Bordetella pertussis , Escherichia coli , and L. pneumophila .

Fatty acids extracted from archaeological pottery vessels (B.C. 900—720 y) excavated at Tell Mastuma, Syria, are characteristic of individual vessels. The molecular-distribution patterns of n-fatty acids of these vessels are different from those of the underfloor soil and a human hand, indicating that the fatty acids recovered are proper to the samples. The lamps show a predominance of hexadecanoic and octadecanoic acids with a near absence of other acids in the patterns, suggesting that olive oil was used in the lamps. On the other hand, large pottery jars show a clear presence of nonanoic acid in their patterns. The acid presence is also strikingly noted in carbonized olive, suggesting that olive and/or a chemically olive-related material was stored in the jars. The relative concentration of cis-9-octadecenoic acid to octadecanoic acid decreases drastically from modern olive pulp to carbonized olive, and further in the jars and lamps. Apparently, a degradation of the acid had occurred intensely during b...

Although Oparin used coacervate droplets from two or more types of polymer to model the first cell, he hypothesized homacervation from protein, consistent with Pasteur and Darwin. Herrera made two amino acids and numerous cell-like structures (“sulfobes”) in the laboratory, which probably arose from intermediate polymers. Our experiments have conformed with a homoacervation of thermal proteinoid, in which amino acid sequences are determined by the reacting amino acids themselves. All proteinoids that have been tested assemble themselves alone in water to protocells. The protocells have characteristics of life defined by Webster's Dictionary: metabolism, growth, reproduction and response to stimuli in the environment. The protocells are able also to evolve to more modern cells including the initiation of a nucleic acid coding system.

We provide evidence that the racemization and isomerization of aspartyl(Asp) residues occur simultaneously in the alpha B-crystallin in the lens of aged (mean age: 80 years) and young (age: 11 months) humans. We purified alpha B-crystallin and subjected it to tryptic digestion. The resulting peptides were separated by reverse-phase high-performance chromatography (RP-HPLC) and were characterized by amino-acid composition, sequence analysis and mass spectrometry. Two specific sites, Asp-36 (D/L of Asp: 0.92) and Asp-62(D/L of Asp: 0.57), among 13 Asp/asparginyl (Asn) residues in aged alpha B-crystallin, were found to be highly racemized and isomerized to form beta-Asp residues. The beta-Asp-containing peptides were clearly distinguished from normal Asp-containing (alpha-Asp) peptides by RP-HPLC. The racemization and isomerization of Asp residues in aged alpha B-crystallin may occur via a succinimide intermediate. In young alpha B-crystallin, we observed neither racemization nor isomerization. We also found that Met-68 was oxidized to form Met sulfoxide to a greater extent in aged alpha B-crystallin than in young alpha B-crystallin. We concluded that racemization, isomerization, and oxidation of alpha B-crystallin occur spontaneously in the aging process.

Unmarked gene deletions facilitate studies of Legionella pneumophila multicomponent processes, such as motility and exonuclease activity. For this purpose, FRT -flanked alleles constructed in Escherichia coli using λ-Red recombinase were transferred to L. pneumophila by natural transformation. Resistance cassettes were then efficiently excised using the Flp site-specific recombinase encoded on a plasmid that is readily lost.

Total carbon contents and carbon isotopic compositions (δ13C relative to PDB) in 33 specimens of Antarctic carbonaceous chondrites are in the ranges of 0.02 to 2.49% and −16.9 to +0.9‰ with the mean values 1.31% and −5.8‰, respectively. The value −5.8‰ is very close to that for the average juvenile mantle carbon but is 5.7‰ higher than that for non-Antarctic ones.

Insoluble organic matter isolated from five Antarctic CM2 chondrites was heated in a thermal analyzer from room temperature to 800°C under helium atmosphere. Organic compounds from the thermal decomposition of the Yamato-791198 sample were studied by a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer (GC-MS). The number of compounds identified was over 120, belonging mainly to the two following groups: 1. (1) benzene and naphthalene, and their alkyl derivatives; and 2. (2) sulfur-containing heterocycles and their alkyl derivatives. Small amounts of aliphatic hydrocarbons and nitriles were also detected. Relative amounts of compounds released from the five chondrite samples were monitored by the MS with increasing temperature. Yamato-74662 and Yamato-791198 showed organic compounds mainly over the temperature range of 300–600°C, while the other three (Yamato-793321, Yamato-86720, and Belgica-7904) did not show any, except small amounts of benzene. These results indicate that the insoluble organics in Yamato-74662 and Yamato-791198 possess a thermally labile organic fraction; whereas those in Yamato-793321, Yamato-86720, and Belgica-7904 do not and are graphitic. The difference between the insoluble organic fractions may be related to aqueous alteration and thermal metamorphism on the parent bodies.

Oleic acid (cis-9-octadecenoic acid) was converted to monocarboxylic acids and γ- and δ-lactones by heating at 200°C under free oxygen. The monocarboxylic acids showed a C9 acid predominance in the presence of Na-montmorillonite in contrast to a C8 acid predominance in the absence of the clay. The γ-lactones showed a C6 lactone predominance in the former case and C4 and C8 lactone predominances in the latter case. Accordingly, it was postulated that the catalytic cracking of oleic acid in the presence of the clay produced mainly the C9 acid that, in turn, generated the C6 lactone by thermal oxidation. The molecular distribution patterns of the monocarboxylic acids and the γ-lactones in the range of C4 to C12 produced by the heating in the presence of the clay resemble those found in the Neogene Shinjo sediments. Therefore, unsaturated monocarboxylic acids with a C-C double bond at C9 were probably important precursors of the monocarboxylic acids and the γ-lactones found in the sediments.

KrF excimer laser irradiation of ethylamine in aqueous solution results in stepwise oxidation to give ethanolamine and glycine.

Heating the aqueous solutions of asparagine-containing dipeptides in which asparagine locates at their C-terminal gave sequential polypeptides having the molecular weight up to 3000–5000.

Free amino acid enantiomers in adult rat brain extracts were analysed as their N,O-pentafluoropropionyl isopropyl derivatives by gas chromatography on a capillary column of Chirasil-L-Val. A peak X, which exhibited the same retention time as the N,O-pentafluoropropionyl isopropyl derivative of authentic D-serine, was detected in the brain extracts. Electron impact and positive chemical ionization mass spectra of the peak X of the brain extracts were identical to those of authentic D-serine. The concentration of free D-serine and the ratio of D-serine/total serine in the brain were estimated to be 0.27 and 0.23, υmol/g of wet weight, respectively. These data provide the first evidence that substantial quantities of free D-serine are present in mammalian brain tissues.

A polymer reagent consisting of hemin, divinylbenzene, and 2-methyl-5-vinylpyridine was synthesized by suspension copolymerization. Substitution reactions of cis- or transoxiranes with the hemin copolymer combined with the azide ion gave sterically controlled azido alcohols.

Amination of several carboxylic acids by reductive fixation of molecular nitrogen was achieved by glow discharge against aqueous solution of these carboxylic acids. The yield of the aminated product is the highest in the case of maleic acid among carboxylic acids used. The addition of hydrochloric acid to the reaction mixture enhances the yields of aminated products. This may be caused by the fact that chloride anion is oxidized by hydroxyl radicals to chlorate ion, and the fixation of molecular nitrogen proceeds under relatively reducing conditions.

Homologous series of low molecular weight monocarboxylic acids (C2 to C12) and γ-lactones (C5 to C12) were detected in Miocene to Pliocene sediments of Shinjo basin. Abundances of the monocarboxylic acids are 10-6 to 10-8g/g, and those of the γ-lactones are 10-7 to 10-9 g/g. The monocarboxylic acids show the unique predominance of nonanoic acid over octanoic and decanoic acids. The γ-lactones show a predominance of hexanoic lactone in most of the sediments. No δ-lactones were detected in the sediments. It seems that the two classes of organic compounds were converted from common precursors, namely cis-9 unsaturated fatty acids, during the early stages of sediment diagenesis.

Four CM2 chondrites from Antarctica were analyzed for nucleic acid bases. The Yamato-74662 and Yamato-791198 chondrites gave positive evidence for the presence of guanine, tentative evidence for xanthine, and possibly hypoxanthine. Their individual abundances were in the range of 420 to 30 ng/g in the two chondrites, while no pyrimidines were found. No purines and pyrimidines were found in the Yamato-793321 and Belgica-7904 chondrites.

The plasmas generated by glow discharge, arc discharge and burning flame induce various organic reactions in aqueous solution, such as oxidation, dehydrogenation, carboxylation, amination, coupling reaction and fixation of nitrogen molecules etc. The main active species are considered to be hydroxyl and hydrogen radicals generated by the decomposition of water molecules under high energy conditions. The reactions induced by plasma are very strong processes without using any other chemical reagent. Considering the composition of the reaction products, the reactions proceed relatively controlled stepwise way. The new type of chemical reaction in aqueous solution induced by plasmas is an unusual reaction which could not be carried out by the conventional chemical ways, and is considered to have great potentialities in its application to many organic compounds in aqueous solution. These reactions are also interesting in connection with the abiotic formation of organic compounds during the course of chemical evolutional processes on the primitive Earth.

Mono- and dicarboxylic acids formed from elemental carbon and water by arc-discharge experiments show a systematic decreases along with an increase in the carbon number. The formation of carbon chains of these acids likely proceeded by a progressive additon of one carbon species; this process is discussed in relation to those acids found in carbonaceous chondrites.

We have reported that two aspartyl (Asp-151 and Asp-58) residues in alpha A-crystallin in human eye lens were inverted to the D-isomer and isomerized to beta-aspartyl residues with age. We report here the kinetics of the Asp racemization of three model peptides corresponding to fragments of alpha A-crystallin: IQTGLD151ATHAER (T18 peptide), TVLD58SGISEVR (T6 peptide) and HFSPED84LTVK (T10 peptide, as a control). The rate constants of the racemization of Asp residues in these peptides were measured at pH 7.0, at five temperatures: 50, 60, 70, 80 and 90 degrees C. From the Arrhenius equation, we estimated the activation energy (E) of racemization and the time required for the Asp D/L ratio to approximate to 1.0 (D/L ratio of Asp = 0.99) at body temperature. For the peptide T18, E = 21.4 kcal/mol and t = 13.5 yr. For the peptide T6, E = 26.8 kcal/mol and r = 49.5 yr. For the control peptide T10, E = 28.3 kcal/mol and t = 78.1 yr. The racemization rate of Asp in these three peptides is parallel to that of Asp residues in alpha A-crystallin. The racemization rate of Asp in the T18 peptide was very rapid compared to that in the other peptides. This result also reflects the racemization rate in native alpha A-crystallin.

We characterized the primary structure of alpha A-crystallin from the lens of the human eye by detailed analyses of the amino acid sequence, mass, and stereoisomers, and found the biologically uncommon D- and beta-aspartic acid (Asp) residues in the protein. The stereoconfiguration of the Asp151 and Asp58 residues in alpha A-crystallin from old subjects (mean age: 80 years) was inverted to the D-isomer, and the residues were simultaneously isomerized to beta-aspartyl residues, which may occur via a succinimide intermediate. This is thought to be the first observation of stereoinversion of amino acids in protein in vivo. It is noteworthy that similar stereoinversion was observed in the same residues of alpha A-crystallin from young subjects (age: 11 months), with simultaneous isomerization, although the extent of isomerization was low compared with that in the aged. The conversion may take place in the early life of the lens and the resulting isomers may accumulate with aging. We also found that terminal serine173 was cleaved in aged alpha A-crystallin. Since the cleavage was not observed in young alpha A-crystallin, it may result from the in vivo aging process. The present findings also make it necessary to revise the amino acid sequence of human alpha A-crystallin presented previously: human alpha A-crystallin is composed of 173 (formerly reported as 172) amino acid residues, and the sequence from residues 153 to 155 is THA (formerly reported as -HT).

This chapter deals with heterogeneous and homogeneous catalytic hydrogenation of the CX bond, mainly compounds containing carbon–oxygen and carbon–nitrogen double bonds.1–8 Various catalysts are employed for the hydrogenation reaction, the most widely used for heterogeneous catalytic hydrogenation being based on Fe, Ni, Co, Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir and Pt, with the most popular catalysts based on Pt, Pd and Ni. The so-called copper chromite has also been used for hydrogenation of CX double bonds.

The plasmas generated by glow discharge, arc discharge and burning flame induce various organic reactions in aqueous solution, such as oxidation, dehydrogenation, carboxylation, amination, coupling reaction and fixation of nitrogen molecules etc. The main active species are considered to be hydroxyl and hydrogen radicals generated by the decomposition of water molecules under high energy conditions. The reactions induced by plasma are very strong processes without using any other chemical reagent. Considering the composition of the reaction products, the reactions proceed relatively controlled stepwise way. The new type of chemical reaction in aqueous solution induced by plasmas is an unusual reaction which could not be carried out by the conventional chemical ways, and is considered to have great potentialities in its application to many organic compounds in aqueous solution. These reactions are also interesting in connection with the abiotic formation of organic compounds during the course of chemical evolutional processes on the primitive Earth.

Asparagine, one of the most important amino acids for prebiotic peptide formation in aqueous media, was formed using Contact Glow Discharge Electrolysis (CGDE) against aqueous solutions containing simple amino acids and carboxylic acid amides.