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Background: Traumatic head injuries (THIs) are among the leading cause of mortality and intensive care unit (ICU) admission in children worldwide. Most of the published literature concerning THIs arises predominantly from North America and Europe. However, only limited data about the incidence, characteristics and impact on children in Saudi Arabia exists., Methods: We conducted a retrospective analysis of THIs in children (≤ 18 years of age) using data from the Saudi TraumA Registry (STAR) from August 2017 to December 2022. Data included patient demographic characteristics, the mechanism, type and severity of injury. We used multivariable logistic regression to assess the association between outcomes and clinical factors., Results: We identified 466 children with THI. Most children were over six years of age (69.5%) and male (76.6%). Motor vehicle crashes (MVCs) were the most common cause of THIs (51.9%), with falls being more common in infants (69.8%). Over half of the children required ICU admission. Children with higher injury severity score, heart rate at presentation to the ED, hospital stay duration, respiratory assistance and need for surgery were more likely to require ICU admission. The overall mortality rate was 7.7%, with schoolchildren (age: 6-12 years) having the highest mortality rate (10.8%). Higher rates of ICU admission were associated with increases in the injury severity score (ISS), hospital stay duration, respiratory assistance and the need for surgery., Conclusions: Children in the 6-12 year age-group had the highest mortality rate, reflecting high injury severities associated with increased ICU admissions. These findings highlight the importance of targeting preventive measures for MVCs in older children and improving trauma care for severe cases., Clinical Trial Number: Not applicable., Competing Interests: Declarations. Ethics approval and consent to participate: The institutional review board approved the study at KSMC, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia (ref. H1RI-12-June23-01). The IRB committee waived the need to obtain informed consent because it used low-risk to no-risk non-identifiable data from an existing registry data set. All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations. Consent for publication: Not applicable. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Objective: Following very preterm birth, some children require ongoing intensive care after the neonatal period and transition directly from neonatal units (NNUs) to paediatric intensive care units (PICUs) around term-corrected age.We aimed to understand, at a national level, characteristics and outcomes of children born very preterm who transitioned directly from NNUs to PICUs., Design: Retrospective cohort study, using data linkage of National Neonatal Research Database, Paediatric Intensive Care Audit Network and Office for National Statistics datasets., Setting: All NNUs and PICUs in England and Wales., Patients: Children born <32 gestational weeks between 1 January 2013 and 31 December 2018, admitted to NNUs, and who transitioned directly to PICU without return to NNU at ≥36 weeks corrected gestation age were included., Main Outcome Measures: Mortality, length of PICU stay, invasive ventilation in PICU (including via tracheostomy), PICU readmission until 2 years of age., Results: Direct NNU-to-PICU transitions occurred in 276 babies during the study period. An increasing yearly trend was observed: 36 transitions of babies born in 2013, 65 in 2018.Of this cohort, 22% of children died before their second birthday, 59% of survivors had ≥1 PICU readmission, 33% of children had long stays in PICU (≥28 days) and 25% received tracheostomy ventilation., Conclusions: An increasing number of very preterm children require ongoing intensive care at the end of their neonatal stay, with high rates of mortality and morbidity. Multidisciplinary involvement and planning around the time of transition from NNU to PICU, informed by national guidance, may be beneficial., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2024. Re-use permitted under CC BY. Published by BMJ.)

Objective: To evaluate trends in etiology and outcomes of neonatal liver failure (NLF) over 30 years retrospectively at a single institution., Study Design: Inclusion criteria for this retrospective cohort study were babies presenting at a chronological age of ≤28 days between 1991 and 2020 with prothrombin time ≥20 seconds and biochemical liver injury. Demographics, etiology, laboratory investigations, need for extrahepatic organ support, acute kidney injury, and intervention with liver transplant (LT) were recorded. Survival outcomes were measured as discharge from the hospital alive with native liver or LT. The study period was stratified into 3 10-year blocks. Trends were analyzed for hospital admissions, etiology, and survival outcomes., Results: One hundred twenty-six babies met the NLF criteria. Admissions to the hospital increased from 21 in 1991-2000 to 65 in 2011-2020. An increasing trend in infectious and metabolic causes, while a decreasing trend in indeterminate etiology, was noted. Survival with native liver improved from 23.8% in 1991-2000 to 55.4% in 2011-20 (P = .021), and mortality reduced from 52.4% to 35.4% during the same periods (P = .213). Twenty-three (18.2%) neonates received LT. Post-LT survival outcomes were 100% for gestational alloimmune liver disease, 66.6% in the indeterminate group, and 25% for herpes simplex virus. Specific etiologies (gestational alloimmune liver disease, OR = 0.07 [0-0.77, P = .048]), presence of acute kidney injury (OR = 6.22 [1.45, 29.38, P = .015]) and need for inotropes (OR = 6.22 [1.45, 29.38, P = .028]) influenced mortality in multivariable logistic regression analysis., Conclusions: In the last 30 years, advances in diagnosis, treatment, and increasing experience with LT have improved survival in NLF., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest., (Crown Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Importance: Children born very preterm (<32 weeks) are at risk of ongoing morbidity and admission to pediatric intensive care units (PICUs) in childhood. However, the influence of the timing of neonatal discharge on unplanned PICU admission has not been established., Objective: To examine whether the timing of neonatal discharge (postmenstrual age and season) is associated with subsequent unplanned PICU admission., Design, Setting, and Participants: This retrospective cohort study used linked national data from the National Neonatal Research Database and Paediatric Intensive Care Audit Network (PICANet) for children born from January 2013 to December 2018 at 22 to 31 weeks' gestational age who were admitted to a neonatal unit in England and Wales and were discharged home at 34 weeks' postmenstrual age or later. All National Health Service (NHS) neonatal units and PICUs in England and Wales were included. Children were followed up until 2 years of chronological age. Data analysis was conducted from October 2023 to August 2024., Exposures: Timing of discharge., Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was unplanned PICU admission between neonatal discharge and chronological age 2 years to any PICU within England and Wales. Survival analysis using a flexible parametric model was conducted with season of discharge (time-dependent factor), gestation, sex, birth weight less than the 10th centile, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, necrotizing enterocolitis, brain injury, and earlier neonatal discharge (lower quartile of postmenstrual age at discharge for gestation) as variables., Results: Of 39 938 children discharged home (median [IQR] gestational age, 29 [27-31] weeks; 21 602 [54.1%] male), 1878 (4.7%) had unplanned PICU admission. More than half of admissions occurred within 50 days of neonatal discharge (1080 [57.5%]). Compared with summer, the risk of unplanned PICU admission following neonatal discharge was 2.58 times higher in winter and 2.35 times higher in autumn (winter: adjusted hazard ratio [aHR], 2.58; 95% CI, 1.68-3.95; autumn: aHR, 2.35; 95% CI, 1.84-2.99). Among children born at 28 to 31 weeks' gestational age, earlier neonatal discharge was associated with increased risk (aHR, 1.30; 95% CI, 1.13-1.49), but this was not true for children born younger than 28 weeks' gestational age., Conclusions and Relevance: In this retrospective cohort study of preterm children, autumn and winter discharge were associated with the highest risk of unplanned PICU admission following neonatal discharge. For children born at 28 to 31 weeks' gestational age, discharge at lower postmenstrual age was also associated with increased risk. Further work is required to understand whether delaying neonatal discharge for some children born at 28 to 31 weeks' gestational age is beneficial and to consider the wider costs and implications of prolonging neonatal care.

Objectives: The paediatric intensive care unit changed heparin infusion dosing from a variable weight-based concentration to a fixed concentration strategy, when smart pump-based drug library was introduced. This change meant significantly lower rates of infusion were needed for the same dose of heparin in the neonatal population. We performed a safety and efficacy assessment of this change., Methods: We performed a retrospective single-centre evaluation based on data from respiratory VA-extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) patients weighing ≤5 kg, pre and post the change to fixed strength heparin infusion. Efficacy was analysed by distribution of activated clotting times (ACT) and heparin dose requirements between the groups. Safety was analysed using thrombotic and haemorrhagic event rates. Continuous variables were reported as median, interquartile ranges, and non-parametric tests were used. Generalised estimating equations (GEE) were used to analyse associations of heparin dosing strategy with ACT and heparin dose requirements in the first 24 h of ECMO. Incidence rate ratios of circuit related thrombotic and haemorrhagic events between groups were analysed using Poisson regression with offset for run hours., Results: 33 infants (20 variable weight-based, 13 fixed concentration) were analysed. Distribution of ACT ranges and heparin dose requirements were similar between the two groups during the ECMO run and this was confirmed by GEE. Incidence rate ratios of thrombotic (fixed v weight-based) (1.9 [0.5-8], p = .37), and haemorrhagic events (0.9 [0.1-4.9], p = .95) did not show statistically significant differences., Conclusions: Fixed concentration dosing of heparin was at least equally effective and safe compared to a weight-based dosing., Competing Interests: Declaration of conflicting interestsThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Importance: Neurological manifestations during acute SARS-CoV-2-related multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) are common in hospitalized patients younger than 18 years and may increase risk of new neurocognitive or functional morbidity., Objective: To assess the association of severe neurological manifestations during a SARS-CoV-2-related hospital admission with new neurocognitive or functional morbidities at discharge., Design, Setting, and Participants: This prospective cohort study from 46 centers in 10 countries included patients younger than 18 years who were hospitalized for acute SARS-CoV-2 or MIS-C between January 2, 2020, and July 31, 2021., Exposure: Severe neurological manifestations, which included acute encephalopathy, seizures or status epilepticus, meningitis or encephalitis, sympathetic storming or dysautonomia, cardiac arrest, coma, delirium, and stroke., Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was new neurocognitive (based on the Pediatric Cerebral Performance Category scale) and/or functional (based on the Functional Status Scale) morbidity at hospital discharge. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed to examine the association of severe neurological manifestations with new morbidity in each SARS-CoV-2-related condition., Results: Overall, 3568 patients younger than 18 years (median age, 8 years [IQR, 1-14 years]; 54.3% male) were included in this study. Most (2980 [83.5%]) had acute SARS-CoV-2; the remainder (588 [16.5%]) had MIS-C. Among the patients with acute SARS-CoV-2, 536 (18.0%) had a severe neurological manifestation during hospitalization, as did 146 patients with MIS-C (24.8%). Among survivors with acute SARS-CoV-2, those with severe neurological manifestations were more likely to have new neurocognitive or functional morbidity at hospital discharge compared with those without severe neurological manifestations (27.7% [n = 142] vs 14.6% [n = 356]; P < .001). For survivors with MIS-C, 28.0% (n = 39) with severe neurological manifestations had new neurocognitive and/or functional morbidity at hospital discharge compared with 15.5% (n = 68) of those without severe neurological manifestations (P = .002). When adjusting for risk factors in those with severe neurological manifestations, both patients with acute SARS-CoV-2 (odds ratio, 1.85 [95% CI, 1.27-2.70]; P = .001) and those with MIS-C (odds ratio, 2.18 [95% CI, 1.22-3.89]; P = .009) had higher odds of having new neurocognitive and/or functional morbidity at hospital discharge., Conclusions and Relevance: The results of this study suggest that children and adolescents with acute SARS-CoV-2 or MIS-C and severe neurological manifestations may be at high risk for long-term impairment and may benefit from screening and early intervention to assist recovery.

Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasound is a non-invasive neuromonitoring technique that falls under the umbrella of point-of-care ultrasound. In this article, we provide a primer to encourage clinicians to perform TCD examinations and to aid them with accurately interpreting the scans. We focus on the middle cerebral artery waveforms and use traumatic brain injury as a model for brain insult., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2024. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Background: Survival following extreme preterm birth has improved, potentially increasing the number of children with ongoing morbidity requiring intensive care in childhood. Previous single-centre studies have suggested that long-stay admissions in paediatric intensive care units (PICUs) are increasing. We aimed to examine trends in long-stay admissions (≥28 days) to PICUs in England, outcomes for this group (including mortality and PICU readmission), and to determine the contribution of preterm-born children to the long-stay population, in children aged <2 years., Methods: Data was obtained from the Paediatric Intensive Care Audit Network (PICANet) for all children <2 years admitted to National Health Service PICUs from 1/1/2008 to 31/12/2018 in England. We performed descriptive analysis of child characteristics and PICU outcomes., Results: There were 99,057 admissions from 67,615 children. 2,693 children (4.0%) had 3,127 long-stays. Between 2008 and 2018 the annual number of long-stay admissions increased from 225 (2.7%) to 355 (4.0%), and the proportion of bed days in PICUs occupied by long-stay admissions increased from 24.2% to 33.2%. Of children with long-stays, 33.5% were born preterm, 53.5% were born at term, and 13.1% had missing data for gestational age. A considerable proportion of long-stay children required PICU readmission before two years of age (76.3% for preterm-born children). Observed mortality during any admission was also disproportionately greater for long-stay children (26.5% for term-born, 24.8% for preterm-born) than the overall rate (6.3%)., Conclusions: Long-stays accounted for an increasing proportion of PICU activity in England between 2008 and 2018. Children born preterm were over-represented in the long-stay population compared to the national preterm birth rate (8%). These results have significant implications for future research into paediatric morbidity, and for planning future PICU service provision., (© 2023. BioMed Central Ltd., part of Springer Nature.)

Objective: To describe hospital admissions associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection in children and adolescents., Design: Cohort study of 3.2 million first ascertained SARS-CoV-2 infections using electronic health care record data., Setting: England, July 2020 to February 2022., Participants: About 12 million children and adolescents (age <18 years) who were resident in England., Main Outcome Measures: Ascertainment of a first SARS-CoV-2 associated hospital admissions: due to SARS-CoV-2, with SARS-CoV-2 as a contributory factor, incidental to SARS-CoV-2 infection, and hospital acquired SARS-CoV-2., Results: 3 226 535 children and adolescents had a recorded first SARS-CoV-2 infection during the observation period, and 29 230 (0.9%) infections involved a SARS-CoV-2 associated hospital admission. The median length of stay was 2 (interquartile range 1-4) days) and 1710 of 29 230 (5.9%) SARS-CoV-2 associated admissions involved paediatric critical care. 70 deaths occurred in which covid-19 or paediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome was listed as a cause, of which 55 (78.6%) were in participants with a SARS-CoV-2 associated hospital admission. SARS-CoV-2 was the cause or a contributory factor in 21 000 of 29 230 (71.8%) participants who were admitted to hospital and only 380 (1.3%) participants acquired infection as an inpatient and 7855 (26.9%) participants were admitted with incidental SARS-CoV-2 infection. Boys, younger children (<5 years), and those from ethnic minority groups or areas of high deprivation were more likely to be admitted to hospital (all P<0.001). The covid-19 vaccination programme in England has identified certain conditions as representing a higher risk of admission to hospital with SARS-CoV-2: 11 085 (37.9%) of participants admitted to hospital had evidence of such a condition, and a further 4765 (16.3%) of participants admitted to hospital had a medical or developmental health condition not included in the vaccination programme's list., Conclusions: Most SARS-CoV-2 associated hospital admissions in children and adolescents in England were due to SARS-CoV-2 or SARS-CoV-2 was a contributory factor. These results should inform future public health initiatives and research., Competing Interests: Competing interests: All authors have completed the ICMJE uniform disclosure form at www.icmje.org/disclosure-of-interest/ and declare: support by the British Heart Foundation Data Science Centre led by Health Data Research UK. CP is a member of Independent Sage and received no funding in relation to this role. HKK is deputy chair and clinical advisor for the Paediatric Intensive Care Audit Network. PR is chair of the Paediatric Critical Care Society Study Group. KB is co-chair of the Paediatric Critical Care Society Cardiac Group. The authors declare no financial relationships with any organisations that might have an interest in the submitted work in the previous three years., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2019. Re-use permitted under CC BY. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Introduction: Exomphalos is an anterior abdominal wall defect resulting in herniation of contents into the umbilical cord. Severe associated chromosomal anomalies and congenital heart disease (CHD) are known to influence mortality, but it is not clear which cardiac anomalies have the greatest impact on survival., Methods: We performed a retrospective review of the treatment and outcome of patients with exomphalos over a 30-year period (1990-2020), with a focus on those with the combination of exomphalos major and major CHD (EMCHD)., Results: There were 123 patients with exomphalos identified, 59 (48%) had exomphalos major (ExoMaj) (defect > 5 cm or containing liver), and 64 (52%) exomphalos minor (ExoMin). In the ExoMaj group; 17% had major CHD (10/59), M:F 28:31, 29% premature (< 37 weeks, 17/59) and 14% had low birth-weight (< 2.5 kg, 8/59). In the ExoMin group; 9% had major CHD (6/64), M:F 42:22, 18% premature and 10% had low birth-weight. The 5-year survival was 20% in the EMCHD group versus 90% in the ExoMaj with minor or no CHD [p < 0.0001]. Deaths in the EMCHD had mainly right heart anomalies and all of them required mechanical ventilation (MV) for pulmonary hypoplasia prior to cardiac intervention. In contrast, survivors did not require mechanical ventilation prior to cardiac intervention., Conclusion: EMCHD is associated with high mortality. The most significant finding was high mortality in those with right heart anomalies in combination with pulmonary hypoplasia, especially if pre-intervention mechanical ventilation is required., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

As survival after pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) admission has improved over recent years, a key focus now is the reduction of morbidities and optimization of quality of life for survivors. Neurologic disorders and direct brain injuries are the reason for 11-16% of admissions to PICU. In addition, many critically ill children are at heightened risk of brain injury and neurodevelopmental difficulties affecting later life, e.g., complex heart disease and premature birth. Hence, assessment, monitoring and protection of the brain, using fundamental principles of neurocritical care, are crucial to the practice of pediatric intensive care medicine. The assessment of brain function, necessary to direct appropriate care, is uniquely challenging amongst children admitted to the PICU. Challenges in assessment arise in children who are unstable, or pharmacologically sedated and muscle relaxed, or who have premorbid abnormality in development. Moreover, the heterogeneity of diseases and ages in PICU patients, means that high caliber evidence is harder to accrue than in adult practice, nonetheless, great progress has been made over recent years. In this 'state of the art' paper about critically ill children, we discuss (1) patient types at risk of brain injury, (2) new standardized clinical assessment tools for age-appropriate, clinical evaluation of brain function, (3) latest evidence related to cranial imaging, non-invasive and invasive monitoring of the brain, (4) the concept of childhood 'post intensive are syndrome' and approaches for neurodevelopmental follow-up. Better understanding of these concepts is vital for taking PICU survivorship to the next level., (© 2022. Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has caused mild illness in children, until the emergence of the novel hyperinflammatory condition paediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome temporally associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) (PIMS-TS). PIMS-TS is thought to be a post-SARS-CoV-2 immune dysregulation with excessive inflammatory cytokine release. We studied 25 hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) concentrations in children with PIMS-TS, admitted to a tertiary paediatric hospital in the UK, due to its postulated role in cytokine regulation and immune response. Eighteen children (median (range) age 8·9 (0·3-14·6) years, male = 10) met the case definition. The majority were of Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic (BAME) origin (89 %, 16/18). Positive SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibodies were present in 94 % (17/18) and RNA by PCR in 6 % (1/18). Seventy-eight percentage of the cohort were vitamin D deficient (< 30 nmol/l). The mean 25OHD concentration was significantly lower when compared with the population mean from the 2015/16 National Diet and Nutrition Survey (children aged 4-10 years) (24 v. 54 nmol/l (95 % CI -38·6, -19·7); P < 0·001). The paediatric intensive care unit (PICU) group had lower mean 25OHD concentrations compared with the non-PICU group, but this was not statistically significant (19·5 v. 31·9 nmol/l; P = 0·11). The higher susceptibility of BAME children to PIMS-TS and also vitamin D deficiency merits contemplation. Whilst any link between vitamin D deficiency and the severity of COVID-19 and related conditions including PIMS-TS requires further evidence, public health measures to improve vitamin D status of the UK BAME population have been long overdue.

Purpose of Review: The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic has overwhelmed the global community, negatively impacting patient health and research efforts; associated neurological manifestations are a significant cause of morbidity. This review outlines the worldwide epidemiology of neurologic manifestations of different SARS-CoV-2 clinical pediatric phenotypes, including acute coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) and postacute sequelae of COVID-19 (PASC). We discuss strategies to develop adaptive global research platforms for future investigation into emerging pediatric neurologic conditions., Recent Findings: Multicenter, multinational studies show that neurological manifestations of acute COVID-19, such as smell/taste disorders, headache, and stroke, are common in hospitalized adults (82%) and children (22%), associated with increased mortality in adults. Neurological manifestations of MIS-C are reported in up to 20% of children, including headache, irritability, and encephalopathy. Data on PASC are emerging and include fatigue, cognitive changes, and headache. Reports of neurological manifestations in each phenotype are limited by lack of pediatric-informed case definitions, common data elements, and resources., Summary: Coordinated, well resourced, multinational investigation into SARS-CoV-2-related neurological manifestations in children is critical to rapid identification of global and region-specific risk factors, and developing treatment and mitigation strategies for the current pandemic and future health neurologic emergencies., (Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) is a life-threatening disease occurring several weeks after severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. Deep immune profiling showed acute MIS-C patients had highly activated neutrophils, classical monocytes and memory CD8+ T-cells, with increased frequencies of B-cell plasmablasts and double-negative B-cells. Post treatment samples from the same patients, taken during symptom resolution, identified recovery-associated immune features including increased monocyte CD163 levels, emergence of a new population of immature neutrophils and, in some patients, transiently increased plasma arginase. Plasma profiling identified multiple features shared by MIS-C, Kawasaki Disease and COVID-19 and that therapeutic inhibition of IL-6 may be preferable to IL-1 or TNF-α. We identified several potential mechanisms of action for IVIG, the most commonly used drug to treat MIS-C. Finally, we showed systemic complement activation with high plasma C5b-9 levels is common in MIS-C suggesting complement inhibitors could be used to treat the disease., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing interests., (© 2021 The Authors.)

Background: The coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) pandemic had a relatively minimal direct impact on critical illness in children compared to adults. However, children and paediatric intensive care units (PICUs) were affected indirectly. We analysed the impact of the pandemic on PICU admission patterns and patient characteristics in the UK and Ireland., Methods: We performed a retrospective cohort study of all admissions to PICUs in children < 18 years during Jan-Dec 2020, using data collected from 32 PICUs via a central database (PICANet). Admission patterns, case-mix, resource use, and outcomes were compared with the four preceding years (2016-2019) based on the date of admission., Results: There were 16,941 admissions in 2020 compared to an annual average of 20,643 (range 20,340-20,868) from 2016 to 2019. During 2020, there was a reduction in all PICU admissions (18%), unplanned admissions (20%), planned admissions (15%), and bed days (25%). There was a 41% reduction in respiratory admissions, and a 60% reduction in children admitted with bronchiolitis but an 84% increase in admissions for diabetic ketoacidosis during 2020 compared to the previous years. There were 420 admissions (2.4%) with either PIMS-TS or COVID-19 during 2020. Age and sex adjusted prevalence of unplanned PICU admission reduced from 79.7 (2016-2019) to 63.1 per 100,000 in 2020. Median probability of death [1.2 (0.5-3.4) vs. 1.2 (0.5-3.4) %], length of stay [2.3 (1.0-5.5) vs. 2.4 (1.0-5.7) days] and mortality rates [3.4 vs. 3.6%, (risk-adjusted OR 1.00 [0.91-1.11, p = 0.93])] were similar between 2016-2019 and 2020. There were 106 fewer in-PICU deaths in 2020 (n = 605) compared with 2016-2019 (n = 711)., Conclusions: The use of a high-quality international database allowed robust comparisons between admission data prior to and during the COVID-19 pandemic. A significant reduction in prevalence of unplanned admissions, respiratory diseases, and fewer child deaths in PICU observed may be related to the targeted COVID-19 public health interventions during the pandemic. However, analysis of wider and longer-term societal impact of the pandemic and public health interventions on physical and mental health of children is required., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

There is significant variability in the names and case definition of pediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Such variability leads to adverse consequences in the quest for further knowledge and management strategies. It is time to collaborate to gain consensus., (© The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Objectives: Traumatic brain injury in children is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality. Lack of high-quality evidence may lead to variation in management within and between PICUs. We examined U.K. pediatric traumatic brain injury management guidelines for extent of variability., Design: Analysis of U.K. PICU traumatic brain injury guidelines for areas of consistency and variation among each other and against the second edition of Brain Trauma Foundation pediatric traumatic brain injury guidelines., Setting: Not applicable., Subjects: Not applicable., Interventions: Textual analysis of U.K. PICU guidelines., Measurements and Main Results: Twelve key clinical topics in three traumatic brain injury management domains were identified. We performed textual analysis of recommendations from anonymized local guidelines and compared them against each other and the Brain Trauma Foundation pediatric traumatic brain injury guidelines. Fifteen guidelines used by 16 of the 20 U.K. PICUs that manage traumatic brain injury were analyzed. Relatively better consistency was observed for intracranial pressure treatment thresholds (10/15), avoiding prophylactic hyperventilation (15/15), cerebrospinal fluid drainage (13/15), barbiturate (14/15), and decompressive craniectomy (12/15) for intracranial hypertension. There was less consistency in indications for intracranial pressure monitoring (3/15), cerebral perfusion pressure targets (2/15), target osmolarities (7/15), and hyperventilation for intracranial hypertension (2/15). Variability in choice and hierarchy of the interventions for intracranial hypertension were observed, albeit with some points of consistency., Conclusions: Significant variability in pediatric traumatic brain injury management guidelines exists. Despite the heterogeneity, we have highlighted a few points of consistency within the key topic areas of pediatric traumatic brain injury management. We anticipate that this provides impetus for further work around standardization., Competing Interests: The authors have disclosed that they do not have any potential conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2020 by the Society of Critical Care Medicine and the World Federation of Pediatric Intensive and Critical Care Societies.)

Objectives: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 affects adults disproportionately more than children. A small proportion of children with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 required admission to a PICU. We describe the nationwide U.K. PICU experience of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 infection during the first wave of the pandemic and compare this with the critical care course of the 2019 influenza cohort., Design: Prospective nationwide cohort study of characteristics of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2-positive children. Data collection utilized routine Pediatric Intensive Care Audit Network and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2-specific data., Setting: All U.K. PICUs., Patients: Children less than 18 years old, admitted to U.K. PICUs between March 14, 2020, and June 13, 2020, and a positive severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 polymerase chain reaction. Children admitted to U.K. PICUs in 2019 with influenza provided comparison., Interventions: None., Measurements and Main Results: We identified 76 PICU admissions among 73 children with a positive severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 polymerase chain reaction test. Prevalence of PICU admissions per million was 5.2 for children versus 260 for adults. Ten children (14%) were identified on routine screening. Seventeen children (23%) had pediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome temporally associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2. Seventeen (23%) had coinfections. Invasive ventilation was required in seven of 17 children (41%) with pediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome temporally associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 versus 38 of 56 other severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 positive children (68%), with 77% requiring vasoactive support versus 43%, respectively. Seven children (10%) died. In comparison with influenza children, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 children were older (median [interquartile range]: 10 [1-13] vs 3 yr [1-8 yr]), more often Black or Asian (52% v 18%), higher weight z score (0.29 [-0.80 to 1.62] vs -0.41 [-1.37 to 0.63]), and higher deprivation index (3.3 [-1 to 6.3] vs 1.2 [-1.8 to 4.4]). Comorbidities, frequency of organ supports, and length of stay were similar., Conclusions: This nationwide study confirms that PICU admissions with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 infections were infrequent. We have reported similarities and differences in sociodemographic characteristics, organ support interventions, and outcomes of children affected by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 compared with influenza., Competing Interests: Dr. Buckley reports funding from The Healthcare Quality Improvement Partnership during the conduct of the study. The remaining authors have disclosed that they do not have any potential conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2021 The Authors. Published by Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. on behalf of the Society of Critical Care Medicine.)

We describe the critical care course of children with a novel hyperinflammatory syndrome associated with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome temporally associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), with focus on trajectory before and after immunomodulation. Overall, 10 patients who met the U.K. Royal College of Pediatrics and Child Health case definition during a 2-month study period were analyzed. All tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibody. Although only 20% were ventilated, 100% required inotropic or vasopressor support. All children had significantly raised inflammatory markers with a median C-reactive protein of 248 (175-263) mg/L, ferritin of 1,561 (726-2,255) µg/L, and troponin-I of 723 (351-2,235) ng/L. Six patients had moderately impaired myocardial function and two had severe impairment. None needed extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Despite severe illness only a brief period of critical care support of 3 to 5 days was required. Eight received at least one dose of intravenous immunoglobulin. Six received high-dose steroids. Clinical improvement including cardiovascular stability and reduction in inflammatory markers may have occurred with and without immunomodulation., Competing Interests: Conflict of Interest None declared., (Thieme. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: To study the prevalence, evolution, and clinical factors associated with acute kidney injury in children admitted to PICUs with pediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome temporally associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2., Design: Multicenter observational study., Setting: Fifteen PICUs across the United Kingdom., Patients: Patients admitted to United Kingdom PICUs with pediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome temporally associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 between March 14, 2020, and May 20, 2020., Interventions: None., Measurements and Main Results: Deidentified data collected as part of routine clinical care were analyzed. All children were diagnosed and staged for acute kidney injury based on the level of serum creatinine above the upper limit of reference interval values according to published guidance. Severe acute kidney injury was defined as stage 2/3 acute kidney injury. Uni- and multivariable analyses were performed to study the association between demographic data, clinical features, markers of inflammation and cardiac injury, and severe acute kidney injury. Over the study period, 116 patients with pediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome temporally associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 were admitted to 15 United Kingdom PICUs. Any-stage acute kidney injury occurred in 48 of 116 patients (41.4%) and severe acute kidney injury in 32 of 116 (27.6%) patients, which was mostly evident at admission (24/32, 75%). In univariable analysis, body mass index, hyperferritinemia, high C-reactive protein, Pediatric Index of Mortality 3 score, vasoactive medication, and invasive mechanical ventilation were associated with severe acute kidney injury. In multivariable logistic regression, hyperferritinemia was associated with severe acute kidney injury (compared with nonsevere acute kidney injury; adjusted odds ratio 1.04; 95% CI, 1.01-1.08; p = 0.04). Severe acute kidney injury was associated with longer PICU stay (median 5 days [interquartile range, 4-7 d] vs 3 days [interquartile range, 1.5-5 d]; p < 0.001) and increased duration of invasive mechanical ventilation (median 4 days [interquartile range, 2-6 d] vs 2 days [interquartile range, 1-3 d]; p = 0.04)., Conclusions: Severe acute kidney injury occurred in just over a quarter of children admitted to United Kingdom PICUs with pediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome temporally associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2. Hyperferritinemia was significantly associated with severe acute kidney injury. Severe acute kidney injury was associated with increased duration of stay and ventilation. Although short-term outcomes for acute kidney injury in pediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome temporally associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 appear good, long-term outcomes are unknown.

Introduction: There is a need for a universal risk-adjustment model that may be used regardless of the indication and nature of neonatal or paediatric extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support. The 'paediatric extracorporeal membrane oxygenation prediction' model appeared to be a promising candidate but required external validation., Methods: We performed a validation study using institutional database of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation patients (2008-2019). We used the published paediatric extracorporeal membrane oxygenation prediction score calculator to derive estimated mortality based on the model in this cohort of patients in our institutional database. We used standardized mortality ratio, area under the receiver operating characteristic curve and Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test in 10 deciles to assess model performance., Results: We analysed 154 extracorporeal membrane oxygenation episodes in 150 patients. About 53% of the patients were full term (age ⩽30 days and gestation at birth ⩾37 weeks) neonates. The commonest category of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support was cardiac (42%). The overall in-paediatric intensive care unit mortality was 37% (57/154) and the in-hospital mortality was 42% (64/154). Distribution of estimated mortality risk was similar to the derivation study. The calculated standardized mortality ratio was 0.81 based on the paediatric extracorporeal membrane oxygenation prediction model of risk-adjustment. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was 0.55 (0.45-0.64) and Hosmer-Lemeshow-test p value <0.001 was unable to support goodness-of-fit., Conclusion: This small single-centre study with a small number of events was unable to validate the paediatric extracorporeal membrane oxygenation prediction-model of risk-adjustment. Although this remains the most promising of all the available models, further validation in larger data sets and/or refinement may be required before widespread use.

Children were relatively spared during COVID-19 pandemic. However, the recently reported hyperinflammatory syndrome with overlapping features of Kawasaki disease and toxic shock syndrome-"Paediatric Inflammatory Multisystem Syndrome-temporally associated with SARS-CoV-2" (PIMS-TS) has caused concern. We describe cardiac findings and short-term outcomes in children with PIMS-TS at a tertiary children's hospital. Single-center observational study of children with PIMS-TS from 10th April to 9th May 2020. Data on ECG and echocardiogram were retrospectively analyzed along with demographics, clinical features and blood parameters. Fifteen children with median age of 8.8 (IQR 6.4-11.2) years were included, all were from African/Afro-Caribbean, South Asian, Mixed or other minority ethnic groups. All showed raised inflammatory/cardiac markers (CRP, ferritin, Troponin I, CK and pro-BNP). Transient valve regurgitation was present in 10 patients (67%). Left Ventricular ejection fraction was reduced in 12 (80%), fractional shortening in 8 (53%) with resolution in all but 2. Fourteen (93%) had coronary artery abnormalities, with normalization in 6. ECG abnormalities were present in 9 (60%) which normalized in 6 by discharge. Ten (67%) needed inotropes and/or vasopressors. None needed extracorporeal life support. Improvement in cardiac biochemical markers was closely followed by improvement in ECG/echocardiogram. All patients were discharged alive and twelve (80%) have been reviewed since. Our entire cohort with PIMS-TS had cardiac involvement and this degree of involvement is significantly more than other published series and emphasizes the need for specialist cardiac review. We believe that our multi-disciplinary team approach was crucial for the good short-term outcomes.

Introduction: Currently, we are unable to accurately predict mortality or neurological morbidity following resuscitation after paediatric out of hospital (OHCA) or in-hospital (IHCA) cardiac arrest. A clinical prediction model may improve communication with parents and families and risk stratification of patients for appropriate postcardiac arrest care. This study aims to the derive and validate a clinical prediction model to predict, within 1 hour of admission to the paediatric intensive care unit (PICU), neurodevelopmental outcome at 3 months after paediatric cardiac arrest., Methods and Analysis: A prospective study of children (age: >24 hours and <16 years), admitted to 1 of the 24 participating PICUs in the UK and Ireland, following an OHCA or IHCA. Patients are included if requiring more than 1 min of cardiopulmonary resuscitation and mechanical ventilation at PICU admission Children who had cardiac arrests in PICU or neonatal intensive care unit will be excluded. Candidate variables will be identified from data submitted to the Paediatric Intensive Care Audit Network registry. Primary outcome is neurodevelopmental status, assessed at 3 months by telephone interview using the Vineland Adaptive Behavioural Score II questionnaire. A clinical prediction model will be derived using logistic regression with model performance and accuracy assessment. External validation will be performed using the Therapeutic Hypothermia After Paediatric Cardiac Arrest trial dataset. We aim to identify 370 patients, with successful consent and follow-up of 150 patients. Patient inclusion started 1 January 2018 and inclusion will continue over 18 months., Ethics and Dissemination: Ethical review of this protocol was completed by 27 September 2017 at the Wales Research Ethics Committee 5, 17/WA/0306. The results of this study will be published in peer-reviewed journals and presented in conferences., Trial Registration Number: NCT03574025., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2020. Re-use permitted under CC BY. Published by BMJ.)

Objectives: Reports from China relating to coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in children indicate a milder disease course compared with adults. Although a few pediatric COVID-19 reports from other parts of the world exist, there are none from the United Kingdom. We describe the clinical characteristics of children with COVID-19 admitted to a specialist children's hospital in United Kingdom., Methods: Retrospective case-series of inpatients with a positive polymerase chain reaction test for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, during a 6-week period from March 14 to April 24, 2020., Results: Forty-five children tested positive for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 during the study period. Median (interquartile range) age was 3.5 (0.7-12) years, and 31 (69%) were male. Children with comorbidities constituted 64% (29 of 45) of the study population, including 44% (20 of 45) who were considered "extremely vulnerable." Fever (67%) and cough (55%) were the most common symptoms. High C-reactive protein (>10 mg/L) was observed in 68% (19 of 28). Lymphopenia (<1.2 × 10 9 /L) was observed in 23% (9 of 40) of children, but it was related to coexisting medical conditions in 6 children. Nine children required supplemental oxygen, two of whom received high-flow nasal cannula oxygen; one needed noninvasive ventilation and one child required invasive mechanical ventilation. Median length of stay of children with an admission outcome ( n = 42, 93%) was 3 (2-7) days. There were no COVID-19-related deaths., Conclusions: COVID-19 had a relatively mild course of illness in majority of the hospitalized children that included a subgroup of vulnerable children with significant comorbidities. Confirmation of this in larger nationwide studies of children is required., Competing Interests: POTENTIAL CONFLICT OF INTEREST: The authors have indicated they have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose., (Copyright © 2020 by the American Academy of Pediatrics.)

Background: In April, 2020, clinicians in the UK observed a cluster of children with unexplained inflammation requiring admission to paediatric intensive care units (PICUs). We aimed to describe the clinical characteristics, course, management, and outcomes of patients admitted to PICUs with this condition, which is now known as paediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome temporally associated with SARS-CoV-2 (PIMS-TS)., Methods: We did a multicentre observational study of children (aged <18 years), admitted to PICUs in the UK between April 1 and May 10, 2020, fulfilling the case definition of PIMS-TS published by the Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health. We analysed routinely collected, de-identified data, including demographic details, presenting clinical features, underlying comorbidities, laboratory markers, echocardiographic findings, interventions, treatments, and outcomes; serology information was collected if available. PICU admission rates of PIMS-TS were compared with historical trends of PICU admissions for four similar inflammatory conditions (Kawasaki disease, toxic shock syndrome, haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, and macrophage activation syndrome)., Findings: 78 cases of PIMS-TS were reported by 21 of 23 PICUs in the UK. Historical data for similar inflammatory conditions showed a mean of one (95% CI 0·85-1·22) admission per week, compared to an average of 14 admissions per week for PIMS-TS and a peak of 32 admissions per week during the study period. The median age of patients was 11 years (IQR 8-14). Male patients (52 [67%] of 78) and those from ethnic minority backgrounds (61 [78%] of 78) were over-represented. Fever (78 [100%] patients), shock (68 [87%]), abdominal pain (48 [62%]), vomiting (49 [63%]), and diarrhoea (50 [64%]) were common presenting features. Longitudinal data over the first 4 days of admission showed a serial reduction in C-reactive protein (from a median of 264 mg/L on day 1 to 96 mg/L on day 4), D-dimer (4030 μg/L to 1659 μg/L), and ferritin (1042 μg/L to 757 μg/L), whereas the lymphocyte count increased to more than 1·0 × 10 9 cells per L by day 3 and troponin increased over the 4 days (from a median of 157 ng/mL to 358 ng/mL). 36 (46%) of 78 patients were invasively ventilated and 65 (83%) needed vasoactive infusions; 57 (73%) received steroids, 59 (76%) received intravenous immunoglobulin, and 17 (22%) received biologic therapies. 28 (36%) had evidence of coronary artery abnormalities (18 aneurysms and ten echogenicity). Three children needed extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, and two children died., Interpretation: During the study period, the rate of PICU admissions for PIMS-TS was at least 11-fold higher than historical trends for similar inflammatory conditions. Clinical presentations and treatments varied. Coronary artery aneurysms appear to be an important complication. Although immediate survival is high, the long-term outcomes of children with PIMS-TS are unknown., Funding: None., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: During the COVID-19 outbreak, reports have surfaced of children who present with features of a multisystem inflammatory syndrome with overlapping features of Kawasaki disease and toxic shock syndrome - Paediatric Inflammatory Multisystem Syndrome- temporally associated with SARS-CoV-2 pandemic (PIMS-TS). Initial reports find that many of the children are PCR-negative for SARS-CoV-2, so it is difficult to confirm whether this syndrome is a late complication of viral infection in an age group largely spared the worst consequences of this infection, or if this syndrome reflects enhanced surveillance., Methods: Children hospitalised for symptoms consistent with PIMS-TS between 28 April and 8 May 2020, and who were PCR-negative for SARS-CoV-2, were tested for antibodies to viral spike glycoprotein using an ELISA test., Results: Eight patients (age range 7-14 years, 63% male) fulfilled case-definition for PIMS-TS during the study period. Six of the eight patients required admission to intensive care. All patients exhibited significant IgG and IgA responses to viral spike glycoprotein. Further assessment showed that the IgG isotypes detected in children with PIMS-TS were of the IgG1 and IgG3 subclasses, a distribution similar to that observed in samples from hospitalised adult COVID-19 patients. In contrast, IgG2 and IgG4 were not detected in children or adults. IgM was not detected in children, which contrasts with adult hospitalised adult COVID-19 patients of whom all had positive IgM responses., Conclusions: Strong IgG antibody responses can be detected in PCR-negative children with PIMS-TS. The low detection rate of IgM in these patients is consistent with infection having occurred weeks previously and that the syndrome onset occurs well after the control of SARS-CoV-2 viral load. This implies that the disease is largely immune-mediated. Lastly, this indicates that serology can be an appropriate diagnostic tool in select patient groups.

Objective: Prolonged admission to a paediatric intensive care unit (PICU) consumes significant healthcare resource. An increase in the number of long-stay admissions and bed utilisation has been reported elsewhere in the world but not in the UK. If an increasing trend of long-stay admissions is evident, this may have significant implications for provision of paediatric intensive care in the future., Design/setting/patients: We retrospectively analysed prospectively collected data from Birmingham Children's Hospital, UK, over a 20-year period from 1998 to 2017. PICU admissions, bed-days, length of stay and mortality trends were analysed and reported over four different epochs (1998-2002, 2003-2007, 2008-2012 and 2013-2017) for long-stay admissions (PICU length of stay ≥28 days) and others. Differences in patient demographics, diagnostic categorisation and hospital utilisation were also analysed., Results: In total, 24 203 admissions accounted for 131 553 bed-days over the 20-year period. 705 (2.9%) long-stay admissions accounted for 42 312 (32%) bed-days. Proportion of long-stay admissions and corresponding bed-days increased from 1.6% and 20.5% in 1998-2002 to 4.5% and 42.6%, respectively, in 2013-2017 (p<0.001). Long-stay patients had a significantly higher number of hospital admissions (median: 4 vs 2, p<0.001) per patient and overall hospital length of stay (median: 98 vs 15, p<0.001) bed-days compared with other patients. Long-stay admissions were associated with significantly higher crude mortality (23% vs 6%, p<0.001) compared with other admissions., Conclusions: A significant increase in the proportion of prolonged PICU admissions with disproportionately high resource utilisation and mortality is evident over two decades., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2020. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Objectives: To describe implementation and early evaluation of using quantitative electroencephalography for electrographic seizure detection by PICU clinician staff., Design: Prospective observational study of electrographic seizure detection by PICU clinicians in patients monitored with quantitative electroencephalography. Quantitative electroencephalography program implementation included a continuous education and training package. Continuous quantitative electroencephalography monitoring consisted of two-channel amplitude-integrated electroencephalography, color density spectral array, and raw-electroencephalography., Setting: PICU., Patients: Children less than 18 years old admitted to the PICU during the 14-month study period and deemed at risk of electrographic seizure., Interventions: None., Measurements and Main Results: Real time electrographic seizure detection by a PICU team was analyzed for diagnostic accuracy and promptness, against electrographic seizure identification by a trained neurophysiologist, retrospectively reading the same quantitative electroencephalography and blinded to patient details. One-hundred one of 1,510 consecutive admissions (6.7%) during the study period underwent quantitative electroencephalography monitoring. Status epilepticus (35%) and suspected hypoxic-ischemic injury (32%) were the most common indications for quantitative electroencephalography. Electrographic seizure was diagnosed by the neurophysiologist in 12% (n = 12) of the cohort. PICU clinicians correctly diagnosed all 12 patients (100% sensitivity and negative predictive value). An additional eleven patients had a false-positive diagnosis of electrographic seizure (false-positive rate = 52% [31-73%]) leading to a specificity of 88% (79-94%). Median time to detect seizures was 25 minutes (5-218 min). Delayed recognition of electrographic seizure (> 1 hr from onset) occurred in five patients (5/12, 42%)., Conclusions: Early evaluation of quantitative electroencephalography program to detect electrographic seizure by PICU clinicians suggested good sensitivity for electrographic seizure detection. However, the high false-positive rate is a challenge. Ongoing work is needed to reduce the false positive diagnoses and avoid electrographic seizure detection delays. A comprehensive training program and regular refresher updates for clinical staff are key components of the program.

Background: Pupillary light reflex (PLR) has traditionally been assessed using a pen torch (light). Although the terms "brisk" or "sluggish" are often used, it is unclear what characteristics of the PLR result in this description. More recently, automated infrared pupillometry has enabled us to quantify the different components of a PLR., Methods: We conducted a 2-part questionnaire survey of pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) nurses. In part 1, nurses were requested to describe the key characteristics that they associate with a brisk or sluggish PLR in free-text responses. In part 2, after an introduction to pupillometry and the different components of a PLR, nurses were asked to rank the relative importance of latency (time taken for pupil to start reacting to light), percentage change (in pupil size after light stimulus), and constriction velocity (rate of constriction after light stimulus) in relation to a pupil being described as "brisk" and "sluggish., Results: Fifty nurses responded. In part 1, "Quick" was the commonest term used (36% of respondents) to describe a brisk PLR, and 72% used "slow" for a sluggish PLR. Most descriptions most closely mapped to features of latency and/or constriction velocity. In part 2, latency was ranked the most important component on pupillometry for describing brisk (32%) and sluggish (34%) PLRs. Constriction velocity was ranked as the most important by 18% (brisk) and 20% (sluggish), whereas 44% (brisk) and 46% (sluggish) ranked percentage change behind the other 2 characteristics., Conclusion: Latency, followed by the constriction velocity, was felt by PICU nurses to be the most important characteristic of the PLR that results in terms "brisk" or "sluggish" being used at the bedside to describe a PLR. We plan to compare these subjective opinions with objective findings from pupillometry.

Objectives: To review the findings and discuss the implications of a longer duration for fluid boluses in the resuscitation of children with septic shock., Data Sources: We performed a PubMed.gov search using the criteria "Fluid Bolus" and "Children" and "Septic Shock," which yielded 29 references., Study Selection: One trial compared different durations of fluid boluses in pediatric septic shock and was therefore selected for critical appraisal. (Sankar J, Ismail J, Sankar MJ, et al: Fluid Bolus Over 15-20 Versus 5-10 Minutes Each in the First Hour of Resuscitation in Children with Septic Shock: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2017; 18:e435-e445.) DATA EXTRACTION:: This trial compared the effectiveness of 20 mL/kg fluid boluses, in children with septic shock, given over 15-20 versus 5-10 minutes in terms of need for invasive ventilation and/or increase in oxygenation index by 5 from baseline at 6 and 24 hours post initial fluid resuscitation. The relative risk of the primary outcome was 0.62 (p = 0.04; 95% CI, 0.39-0.99) at 6 hours and 0.63 (p = 0.02; 95% CI, 0.42-0.93) at 24 hours., Data Synthesis: Fragility Index calculations for the primary outcomes of this trial were 1 and 2. Therefore, only one and two children would have needed different outcomes to have given nonsignificant p values greater than 0.05. Analysis of the results did not support the early stopping of this trial at the interim period., Conclusions: The article reviewed does not support a change in practice to a longer duration of fluid bolus. The "push" technique for titration of fluid boluses in pediatric septic shock should continue to be the method of choice. Critical Care trials using binary outcomes as endpoints should publish Fragility Index results to aid interpretation and generate stronger conclusions.

Objective: Factors influencing the development of hyperglycemia and pattern of insulin requirement in children undergoing cardiac surgery are poorly understood. This study investigated the impact of age on the pattern of hyperglycemia and insulin requirement in children after cardiac surgery., Design: Cohort study, based on a prospectively collected dataset for patients enrolled into the Control of Hyperglycemia in Pediatric Intensive Care trial., Setting: A 24-bedded multidisciplinary PICU., Patients: Children randomized to the tight glycemic control arm (target blood glucose, 4-7 mmol/L [72-126 mg/dL]) of the Control of Hyperglycemia in Pediatric Intensive Care trial following cardiac surgery. Children were categorized into four age groups (neonate, 1-30 d; infant, 31-365 d; young child, 1-5 yr; older child, 5-16 yr) for analyses of patterns of hyperglycemia and insulin requirement over the 12-hour period following initiation of insulin., Interventions: Insulin titration was performed based on blood glucose value and rate of change of blood glucose using an algorithm developed for the Control of Hyperglycemia in Pediatric Intensive Care trial., Measurements and Main Results: Of 92 children, 72 children (78%) randomized to the tight glycemic control group developed hyperglycemia (blood glucose, > 7 mmol/L [126 mg/dL]) and received insulin. Older age was associated with higher blood glucose and a higher insulin dose per kilogram over the first 3 hours of the study period (p ≤ 0.02). Cumulative insulin dose was significantly higher in older children (median, 1.3 U/kg [range, 0.2-5.75]) compared with other age groups (neonate, 0.37 [0.05-2.2]; infant, 0.45 [0.05-2.2]; young child, 0.35 [0.05-0.81]) (p = 0.004). Age group, rather than body mass index, carbohydrate intake, or cardiac surgery variables, was the only variable (coefficient: 1.14 ± 0.3; p < 0.001) associated with cumulative insulin dose on multivariate analysis., Conclusions: When tight glycemic control is targeted in children who have undergone cardiac surgery, children in the older child age group (5-16 yr) require insulin at significantly higher doses. Further study is needed to understand the mechanisms involved.

Purpose: Unplanned extubation (UE) is an important paediatric intensive care unit (PICU) quality indicator. Studies on UE have been modest in size, with accurate UE rate calculation potentially hampered by ventilation episodes recorded in calendar days. We wished to document UE rates, outcomes, associated factors and quantify error when calendar days rather than exact timings are used., Methods: We recorded prospectively all UE episodes and potential associated factors in our 20-bed PICU for 12,533 admissions (2000-2013). Ventilation episodes were recorded to the minute, with non-invasive and tracheostomy ventilation excluded. Analysis utilised multilevel mixed-effects Poisson regression, adjusting for multiple ventilation episodes in the same patient., Results: Overall, 243 UEs occurred within 14,141 ventilation episodes (31,564 intubated days), giving a UE rate of 0.77 (95% CI 0.67-0.87) episodes per 100 intubated days. If calendar ventilation days were used, the yearly UE rate was underestimated by 27-35%. UE rates decreased with time, by approximately 0.05/100 intubated days each year. Associations with UE incidence rate included patient age, source of admission, disease severity and diagnostic category, with nasal tubes decreasing the risk. Although UE versus planned extubation was associated with a higher re-intubation rate (43 versus 8%) and longer median PICU stay (4.6 versus 2.6 days, p < 0.001), mortality between the two groups did not differ (3.0 versus 5.1%, p = 0.18)., Conclusions: This study provides contemporaneous UE rates for benchmarking. Recording ventilation in calendar days underestimates UE rate. Several factors associated with UE may serve as a focus of quality improvement.

Providing evidence-based interventions for infants and children is important in paediatric intensive care, where decision making impacts most acutely on morbidity and mortality. However, despite the major progress of medicine in the 21st century, we still lack this evidence for majority of the decisions we make. In this article, we explore and suggest possible solutions for several dilemmas faced by paediatric intensive care researchers. These include ethical dilemmas such as validity of informed consent, use of deferred consent, balancing risk versus benefit and methodological dilemmas such as how to generate high-quality evidence with low-patient volume, choice of valid outcome measures and how best to use research and researchers' networks., (Published by the BMJ Publishing Group Limited. For permission to use (where not already granted under a licence) please go to http://group.bmj.com/group/rights-licensing/permissions.)

A traumatic ventricular septal defect (VSD) resulting from blunt chest injury is a very rare event in children. The clinical symptoms and timing of presentation are variable, so diagnosis and management of traumatic VSD may be challenging. Decision to close the traumatic VSD is usually based on a combination of severity of heart failure symptoms, hemodynamics, and defect size. We present a case of a 7-year-old boy who was run over by a truck and presented with head and liver injury initially. He was subsequently found to have a traumatic VSD. The VSD was closed percutaneously.