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The current status of women employed in professional positions in educational institutions from preschool through the universities is reviewed to determine their relative employment status in comparison to men, and to identify discriminatory employment practices that have limited women's opportunities. Material for the study was gathered from a variety of sources ranging from scientific and historical studies to local reports from women's organizations. The most recent survey of research data available has been utilized; however wherever appropriate, such data have been compared to similar earlier data to highlight trends and to draw conclusions. Where hard data do not exist, issues are defined by reference to relevant articles, reports, laws, and court decisions. Chapters discuss the methodological approach; employment and salary; minority women; policymakers; hiring and promotion; discriminatory practices relating to fringe benefits; women's patterns of life and work; legislation, regulations, and executive orders; court cases; and recommendations. Footnotes are included at the end of each chapter and a bibliography of all reference material cited is in the appendix. (Author/MLF)

This main volume of a two-volume final report presents findings of a national study of women students in area vocational-technical schools comparing and contrasting nontraditional women (those enrolled in programs where nationally 0% to 25% of the students are women) and traditional women (those enrolled in programs in which nationally 75% to 100% are women) to determine what factors are influential in students' selection of nontraditional or traditional occupational training in nonprofessional occupations and to analyze the data with regard to seven broad occupational areas and sex stereotypes of particular occupations. Chapter headings are (1) Introduction, (2) Executive Summary: Major Findings and Implications, (3) Demographic Characteristics of Students, (4) Educational Personnel, (5) Persons Influencing Decision-Making, (6) Impact of Counseling Methods and Techniques, (7) Relevance of High School Preparation, (8) Motivational Factors, (9) Problems and Difficulties of Women in Non-Traditional Vocational Training, (10) Employment of Students, (11) Alternative Occupations Considered by Women, and (12) Women in "Mixed" Vocational Training. The appendixes contain methodology and methodological tables, questionnaires, glossary, and statistical symbols. (Supplementary tables are in the second volume.) (HD)

A national survey of women in nontraditional, mixed, and traditional occupational training at area vocational technical schools was conducted to determine the factors which influence women to enter nontraditional training and how they differ from those of traditional women. It was found that women have difficulty selecting a nontraditional vocational program and that this problem is compounded by the pressure on women to choose academic preparation. Interest was the single most powerful force influencing women in their selection of vocational training. Ability in the occupational area was second, and earnings came third. Career education, career orientation, and job site visitation were considered more useful counseling techniques than individual counseling, vocational testing, or group counseling. Educational personnel did not have a great impact on the career decision making of students. Counselors and teachers had more influence on traditional women than on nontraditional women. Parents were the most influential group for nontraditional students. Employment of women in related occupations simultaneous to their vocational training was an extremely important factor in improving their education and training. The largest single problem identified by women was the problem of men adjusting to women in their classroom, particularly if there were very few women in the classroom. (LMS)

As a companion to a study of women in nontraditional training in postsecondary vocational education, a national survey of secondary women in area vocational technical schools (AVTSs) was conducted to determine what factors influence the occupational decisions and future plans of high school women enrolled in nontraditional vocational training, how these factors differ from those influencing women enrolled in mixed and traditional training, and what problems nontraditional women students experience. The sample included 1,062 nontraditional, 1,006 mixed, and 1,002 traditional women from 156 AVTSs in thirty-six states. Educational personnel named by the nontraditional women as influential were also surveyed. It was found that mothers are the single most influential person to all women; students perceive career education as the most influential counseling technique; and interest, not earnings, is the major reason for selecting a nontraditional training program. The largest single problem nontraditional students face is that of men adjusting to them in the classroom. One recommendation was that some traditional career counseling techniques (for example, individual testing) should be re-examined in light of the findings. (Appendixes include the demographic characteristics of surveyed students and educational personnel, methodology, reference tables, questionnaires, a glossary, and statistical symbols.) (LMS)

The impetus for developing a model to retrain women teachers and skilled women to become teachers in traditionally male-intensive secondary vocational education has emerged from a combination of problems and issues. The most pertinent of these involve the factors of supply and demand, coupled with the need to reduce sex stereotyping and bias in employment. A retraining program should respond to the need for female teachers in male-intensive vocational programs by state and should identify where the need for such a program is greatest. The major conceptual issues that must be addressed in proposing a retraining model include the characteristics of the women for whom the program is being designed, the certification requirements of the state, job growth potential, and time required to attain skill levels and operate the retraining model. Other factors involved in planning the model are evaluation, funding sources, and packaging the program. The two areas that consistently offer the most opportunities for employing teachers in male-intensive vocational programs in most states are trade and industrial education and industrial arts. Some aspects to consider in retraining women in these areas are program design, work experience, competency-based programs, and preservice and inservice training. Recruitment practices, selection of applicants for pilot programs counseling, and various support programs must be carefully planned to insure that the first group of women entering these positions has a positive and successful experience. (BM)

The premise of this study is that to understand the needs of adult women in vocational education, stereotypes regarding life and work patterns of adult women must be discarded. The purpose of this study is to gain further understanding of how women's family responsibilities and prior education have influenced their working lives and how each of the above have influenced current occupational/training choices. Data collected is based on a national sample of 1,500 women from ninety-one area vocational technical schools (AVTS) in thirty-four states. Findings are summarized with correlating issues in the following areas: demography, other postsecondary educational programs, current vocational education programs, employment status, career decision-making, motivation, service needs, problems, women who have never worked, steady and intermittent employees, and non-traditional women. Women are placed in one of five categories and analyzed comparatively: reentrants (steadily employed, intermittently employed, never before employed) and career changers (steady employees, intermittent employees). Sample questionnaires are appended. (FP)

Intended for use by vocational teacher educators, state administrators seeking to expand teacher education opportunities, and local school administrators who wish to employ women teachers in a broader range of programs, the model presented here is designed to facilitate the retraining of women teachers and skilled women to teach in nontraditional secondary vocational education programs. Focus is on the feasibility of retraining programs, identification of alternative approaches to meeting teacher qualifications, and constraints teacher educators and school administrators are likely to encounter. Section 1 presents rationale including discussion of the oversupply of teachers, demand for vocational teachers, underrepresentation of women in male-intensive skilled occupations, and elimination of sex stereotyping and sex bias. The model itself is presented in section 2 under headings of certification requirements, characteristics of the women, and time required to attain skills levels and operate the retraining model. Program design is outlined for five types of programs: trade and industrial education, technical education, agriculture, cooperative education, and industrial arts. Section 3, a handbook with guidelines for implementation, it covers issues in planning (e.g., needs assessment, funding sources, and evaluation plan) as well as techniques and programs responding to special needs (e.g., selection of applicants for pilot program, counseling and support program, training seminars for project team, and placement system). (JT)

A study was conducted to determine why so few women applicants were admitted to apprenticeships, what the differences were between the successful and unsuccessful applicants, and what programs and services were needed to insure the success of both applicants and apprentices. In order to identify the major problem areas, 110 questionnaires were analyzed (77 from women apprentices and 33 from applicants) as well as interviews with 17 Joint Apprenticeship Councils (JACs) and 13 recruitment programs. While shortcomings were found in the societal, psychological, and developmental experiences of women, their lack of suitable education and training was considered especially critical because of its effect on their ability to meet admission requirements, to score well on written examinations, to pass oral interviews, and to qualify for points given according to previous course work. Another serious obstacle for women was obtaining a job for the apprenticeship. Once accepted, women encountered a further set of problems: acceptance by fellow workers and supervisors, male chivalry, physical or technical job demands, related instruction, and promotion. Women often voluntarily dropped out and strongly felt the need for supportive services. Specific recommendations were made and directed to the school systems, JACs, unions, employers, and Department of Labor to aid in the solution of these problems. (In an appendix the methodology used in the study is described in full.) (ELG)