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This systematic review investigates how prefrontal transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) immediately influences neuronal excitability based on oxygenation changes measured by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) or functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). A thorough understanding of TMS-induced excitability changes may enable clinicians to adjust TMS parameters and optimize treatment plans proactively. Five databases were searched for human studies evaluating brain excitability using concurrent TMS/fMRI or TMS/fNIRS. Thirty-seven studies (13 concurrent TMS/fNIRS studies, 24 concurrent TMS/fMRI studies) were included in a qualitative synthesis. Despite methodological inconsistencies, a distinct pattern of activated nodes in the frontoparietal central executive network, the cingulo-opercular salience network, and the default-mode network emerged. The activated nodes included the prefrontal cortex (particularly dorsolateral prefrontal cortex), insula cortex, striatal regions (especially caudate, putamen), anterior cingulate cortex, and thalamus. High-frequency repetitive TMS most consistently induced expected facilitatory effects in these brain regions. However, varied stimulation parameters (e.g., intensity, coil orientation, target sites) and the inter- and intra-individual variability of brain state contribute to the observed heterogeneity of target excitability and co-activated regions. Given the considerable methodological and individual variability across the limited evidence, conclusions should be drawn with caution., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Sex differences have been claimed an imperative factor in the optimization of psychiatric treatments. Intermittent theta-burst stimulation (iTBS), a patterned form of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation, is a promising non-invasive treatment option. Here, we investigated whether the real-time neural response to iTBS differs between men and women, and which mechanisms may mediate these differences. To this end, we capitalized on a concurrent iTBS/functional near-infrared spectroscopy setup over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, a common clinical target, to test our assumptions. In a series of experiments, we show (1) a biological sex difference in absolute hemoglobin concentrations in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in healthy participants; (2) that this sex difference is amplified by iTBS but not by cognitive tasks; and (3) that the sex difference amplified by iTBS is modulated by stimulation intensity. These results inform future stimulation treatment optimizations towards precision psychiatry., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest None., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)