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Sodium chloride (NaCl) is one of the most commonly occurring weathering agents, responsible for a progressive damage in mortar. Current solutions to mitigate salt damage in mortar, such as the use of mixed-in water repellent additives, have often exhibited low compatibility with the existing building fabric. In the last years, research has shown promising results in mitigating salt decay by making use of crystallisation inhibitors. Sodium ferrocyanide is one of the inhibitors that has proven to be particularly effective to reduce damage due to sodium chloride crystallisation. In this research the possibility of developing hydraulic mortars with mixed-in inhibitor (sodium ferrocyanide) for an improved resistance to sodium chloride crystallisation damage is investigated. As a first step, the interaction between the inhibitor and the hydraulic binder: natural hydraulic lime (NHL), was studied; the results are presented in this paper. Various concentrations of sodium ferrocyanide were tested (0%, 0.1% and 1% by binder weight). The effect of the inhibitor on several physical (hydration, water absorption, pore size distribution) and mechanical (compressive and flexural strength) properties was experimentally assessed, using several complementary methods and techniques. The results show that the addition of the sodium ferrocyanide does not affect the fresh and hardened properties of mortar. These results are promising and open new possibilities for the application of inhibitors to improve the durability of hydraulic mortars., Green Open Access added to TU Delft Institutional Repository ‘You share, we take care!’ – Taverne project https://www.openaccess.nl/en/you-share-we-take-care Otherwise as indicated in the copyright section: the publisher is the copyright holder of this work and the author uses the Dutch legislation to make this work public., Heritage & Architecture, Materials and Environment

Crystallisation due to commonly occurring salts like sodium chloride (NaCl) is a known cause of damage in the built environment. Use of crystallisation inhibitors is a potential solution to reduce salt decay in building materials. Researchers have reported lower damage when sodium ferrocyanide (NaFeCN), a known NaCl crystallisation inhibitor, is mixed in fresh mortar. However, the high solubility of NaFeCN in water could make it susceptible to leaching and thus diminish its effect over time., Green Open Access added to TU Delft Institutional Repository 'You share, we take care!' - Taverne project https://www.openaccess.nl/en/you-share-we-take-care Otherwise as indicated in the copyright section: the publisher is the copyright holder of this work and the author uses the Dutch legislation to make this work public., Heritage & Architecture, Materials and Environment

This paper presents the measurement and analysis of energy consumption of a laboratory jaw crusher during concrete recycling. A method was developed to estimate the power requirements of a lab-scale jaw crusher. The impact of material properties on the crusher performance is studied. Eight concrete strength classes (C20/25–C80/95) were considered in the approach. Concrete specimens were cured for 28 days; at which time, concrete properties were obtained through tests such as bulk density, compressive strength, tensile strength, rebound number and ultrasonic pulse velocity. The impact of different aperture size (5 mm and 25 mm) on the energy consumption was also studied. From the experimental results, it is demonstrated that there is a strong dependance of energy consumption on the compressive strength of concrete. Energy of crushing for specimens with a 90 MPa compressive strength was four times higher than the energy needed to crush specimens with a 28 MPa compressive strength. Furthermore, the crushing requires three times more energy when the smaller aperture size is used to process concrete specimens. The results of this study can form a basis for a future large-scale field analysis and a detailed determination of the energy and economic efficiency of concrete recycling., Materials and Environment, Heritage & Architecture

This paper investigates the leaching behaviour of sodium ferrocyanide, a known crystallisation inhibitor of sodium chloride, which is added to mortars for mitigation of salt decay. Leaching and depletion of the inhibitor is a practical performance related issue that might over time, make the inhibitor less effective against salt decay. In this research, the inhibitor was added to natural hydraulic lime (NHL) mortars during the mixing stage. Leaching of the inhibitor from the hardened mortar was assessed experimentally in laboratory. Both diffusion- and advection-driven transport mechanisms were considered. Diffusion experiments were carried out in a tank leaching test setup. Capillary absorption and drying cycles were used as a driving force to study advection-driven transport. Quantification of the leached species was carried out using various analytical techniques, including UV-VIS spectroscopy, ICP-OES and ion chromatography. The results from the tank leaching test show a high effective diffusion coefficient of ferrocyanide ions, in the same order of magnitude as sodium chloride transport. The advection test shows accumulation of the inhibitor at the evaporative surface and depletion of the inhibitor in the inner layers with successive wet-dry cycles. Based on these results it can be inferred that the degree of inhibitor leaching is significant and needs to be minimised to prolong the positive effect of the inhibitor on mortar durability. Potential solutions to reduce inhibitor leaching are discussed., Heritage & Architecture, Materials and Environment

This recommendation is devoted to testing the resistance of natural stone and fired-clay brick units against salt crystallization. The procedure was developed by the RILEM TC 271-ASC to evaluate the durability of porous building materials against salt crystallization through a laboratory method that allows for accelerated testing without compromising the reliability of the results. The new procedure is designed to replicate salt damage caused by crystallization near the surface of materials as a result of capillary transport and evaporation. A new approach is proposed that considers the presence of two stages in the salt crystallization test. In the first, the accumulation stage, salts gradually accumulate on or near the surface of the material due to evaporation. In the second, the propagation stage, damage initiates and develops due to changes in moisture content and relative humidity that trigger salt dissolution and crystallization cycles. To achieve this, two types of salt were tested, namely sodium chloride and sodium sulphate, with each salt tested separately. A methodology for assessing the salt-induced damage is proposed, which includes visual and photographical observations and measurement of material loss. The procedure has been preliminarily validated in round robin tests., Heritage & Architecture

Plasters and renders used in historic monuments are vulnerable to degradation caused by salt weathering. Crystallisation inhibitors (molecules/ions that alter salt crystallisation) mixed into mortars have shown promising results in mitigating salt damage by inhibiting salt crystallisation, promoting salt transport to the evaporating surface, and modifying crystal habit. However, past research suggests that inhibitors easily leach out from mortars, meaning their long-term positive effect is lost. Encapsulation of an inhibitor within a mortar is a potential solution to minimise leaching. Herein, capsules composed of a polyelectrolyte complex of calcium alginate coated in chitosan are investigated for the controlled diffusive release of sodium ferrocyanide, a known NaCl crystallisation inhibitor. Capsules with varying chitosan-calcium alginate ratios are prepared using the extrusion dripping technique. The release of the inhibitor from capsules in solutions of various pH values ranging from 7–13 is investigated. Results show that increasing the capsule’s chitosan to calcium alginate ratio reduces the inhibitor release for all studied solution pH values compared to pure calcium-alginate capsules. Therefore, a controlled inhibitor release can be obtained by tuning the chitosan-alginate ratio. In future, additional tests will be performed to find suitable capsule compositions for optimising their performance when mixed in mortars., Heritage & Architecture, Materials and Environment

Salt crystallization is a major cause of weathering of mortars, including plasters and renders. In the last decade, the use of mixed-in salt crystallization inhibitors in mortars has been proposed as a solution to improve the durability of this material with respect to salt decay. Laboratory characterization and accelerated weathering tests have shown encouraging results. However, data on the long-term behaviour of these mortars when applied on-site were missing until now .In this research the durability with respect to salt decay of a lime-based plaster and a salt accumulating plaster has been assessed. These plasters, with and without sodium ferrocyanide, a well-known inhibitor of sodium chloride crystallization, have been applied to an interior brick masonry wall with a high salt (sodium chloride) and moisture load and monitored for a period of 4 years. Monitoring included visual and photographic observations of the damage as well as measurements of the moisture and salt content and distribution, both in the wall and in the plaster. Moreover, the content and distribution of the inhibitor in the plaster after 4 year exposure was measured, to gain insight into the dissolution and transport of the inhibitor. The results of the research clearly show that the inhibitor is able to significantly reduce the occurrence of salt-induced decay in the lime-based plaster, in comparison to the plaster without inhibitor. No conclusions can be drawn in the case of the salt accumulating plaster, as no decay has developed yet in this case. Two issues related to leaching of the inhibitor and surface discolouration have emerged. These are discussed and possible solutions are proposed., Heritage & Technology

Salt crystallization is a major cause of damage in porous building materials. Accelerated salt weathering tests carried out in the laboratory are among the most common methods to assess the durability of material to salt decay. However, existing standards and recommendations for salt weathering tests have limitations in terms of effectiveness and/or reliability. In the framework of the RILEM Technical Committee 271-ASC, a procedure has been developed which proposes a new approach to salt crystallization tests. It starts from the consideration that salt damage can be seen as a process developing in two phases: accumulation of the salt in the material and propagation of the decay. In the first phase, salts are introduced in the material and accumulate close to the evaporation surface, while in the second phase damage propagates because of repeated dissolution and crystallization cycles, induced by re-wetting with liquid water and by relative humidity changes. In this paper, the procedure is described and the results of a first round robin validation of the test, carried out on 7 materials and involving 10 laboratories, are presented. The results show that the procedure is effective to cause decay within the time period of the test (about 3 months) and that the decay increases with subsequent cycles. The decay observed differs in type and severity depending on the salt type and concentration and on the type of substrate. The decay types detected in the laboratories are generally representative of those observed in the field for the selected substrates. The differences in durability between the various substrates, as assessed at the end of the test, are in line with the durability expected based on field observation. The reproducibility of the results in terms of decay type is good; some differences have been observed in terms of material loss. These are more significant in the case of NaCl contaminated specimens. Based on the results, proposals for fine-tuning of th, Heritage & Technology

Porous building materials are often subjected to damage due to salt crystallization. In recent years, the addition of crystallization inhibitors in lime-based mortar, has shown promising results in improving durability of this material against salt decay. Lime-based mortars have low mechanical properties and slow setting. They are often replaced with hydraulic binders to overcome these limitations. However, the effect of crystallization inhibitors in mortars with hydraulic binders is still unknown. Incorporation of crystallization inhibitors in hydraulic mortars would widen the application field of this new technology. In this research, the possibility to develop hydraulic mortars with mixed-in sodium ferrocyanide, an inhibitor of sodium chloride crystallization, is explored. As an essential first step, the influence of this inhibitor addition on the properties of hydraulic mortars is investigated. Two common types of hydraulic binders, natural hydraulic lime (NHL) and ordinary Portland cement (CEM I), were studied; the inhibitor was added in different amounts (0%, 0.1% and 1% by binder weight) during mortar (and binder paste) preparation. Relevant mortar and binder paste properties, in fresh (hydration, workability, setting time) and hardened (mechanical strength, elastic modulus, pore size distribution, water absorption) state, were assessed using several complementary methods and techniques. The results indicate that the addition of ferrocyanide does not alter the studied properties of both NHL and CEMI-based mortar and binder pastes. These results are promising for the further development of hydraulic mortars with an improved durability with respect to salt decay., Heritage & Technology, Materials and Environment

Service life of concrete infrastructure is severely compromised because of chloride-induced corrosion and measuring the chloride content is crucial to determine the remaining service life. DuraCrete provides a chloride ingress model based on Fick’s 2nd law. Although the diffusion coefficient is modelled as a time-dependent variable, the DuraCrete solution averages it to a constant value. This simplification leads to inaccurate estimation of the chloride content. A new analytical solution that addresses the underlying mathematical discrepancy has been proposed. However, the time-dependent diffusion coefficient is still based on an empirical factor. In this study, a real-time durability monitoring system has been developed using remotely operated resistivity sensors. Such a system is able to monitor the time dependent diffusion coefficient without the need to incorporate empirical factors. Additionally, a numerical technique to find an approximation of the proposed improved analytical solution is presented using real-time resistivity measurements from laboratory and real structures. The results show that the discrete sensor data measurements over time provide a good approximation of the proposed analytical solution. The system developed in this study is used as a data-driven input parameter to supplement the existing chloride models., Concrete Structures

Service life of concrete infrastructure is severely compromised because of chloride-induced corrosion and measuring the chloride content is crucial to determine the remaining service life. DuraCrete provides a chloride ingress model based on Fick’s 2nd law. Although the diffusion coefficient is modelled as a time-dependent variable, the DuraCrete solution averages it to a constant value. This simplification leads to inaccurate estimation of the chloride content. A new analytical solution that addresses the underlying mathematical discrepancy has been proposed. However, the time-dependent diffusion coefficient is still based on an empirical factor. In this study, a real-time durability monitoring system has been developed using remotely operated resistivity sensors. Such a system is able to monitor the time dependent diffusion coefficient without the need to incorporate empirical factors. Additionally, a numerical technique to find an approximation of the proposed improved analytical solution is presented using real-time resistivity measurements from laboratory and real structures. The results show that the discrete sensor data measurements over time provide a good approximation of the proposed analytical solution. The system developed in this study is used as a data-driven input parameter to supplement the existing chloride models.

Service life of concrete infrastructure is severely compromised because of chloride-induced corrosion and measuring the chloride content is crucial to determine the remaining service life. DuraCrete provides a chloride ingress model based on Fick’s 2nd law. Although the diffusion coefficient is modelled as a time-dependent variable, the DuraCrete solution averages it to a constant value. This simplification leads to inaccurate estimation of the chloride content. A new analytical solution that addresses the underlying mathematical discrepancy has been proposed. However, the time-dependent diffusion coefficient is still based on an empirical factor. In this study, a real-time durability monitoring system has been developed using remotely operated resistivity sensors. Such a system is able to monitor the time dependent diffusion coefficient without the need to incorporate empirical factors. Additionally, a numerical technique to find an approximation of the proposed improved analytical solution is presented using real-time resistivity measurements from laboratory and real structures. The results show that the discrete sensor data measurements over time provide a good approximation of the proposed analytical solution. The system developed in this study is used as a data-driven input parameter to supplement the existing chloride models., Concrete Structures

Sodium chloride (NaCl) is one of the ubiquitous soluble salts in the environment and is responsible for weathering of building materials. The salt weathering is attributed to the stress developed from crystallisation of these salts in pores of the building materials, with supersaturation as the driving force. In the last years, researchers have successfully mitigated the damage associated with the crystallisa-tion of NaCl by the use of alkali-ferrocyanides (crystallisation inhibitors) in porous building materials. The observed mitigation of the damage has been attributed to lowering of the crystallisation pressure, possibly related to changes in the crystal habit and preferential crystallisation of the salt in the form of efflorescence instead of crypto-florescence. However, the effect of the inhibitor on the development of the so-called crystallisation pressure has not been studied in detail yet. In fact, direct measurement of this pressure is challenging and, until now, only a few experiments have been successful. In this research, an experimental setup has been developed to directly measure the crystallisation forces of NaCl and the effect of fer-rocyanide on these, while visualizing the crystallization process under a microscope. Some preliminary tests using this setup have been carried out: these consisted in monitoring force evolution from a drop of solution with and without the inhibitor confined between two glass plates., Heritage & Technology, Materials and Environment

Service life of concrete infrastructure is severely compromised because of chloride-induced corrosion and measuring the chloride content is crucial to determine the remaining service life. DuraCrete provides a chloride ingress model based on Fick’s 2nd law. Although the diffusion coefficient is modelled as a time-dependent variable, the DuraCrete solution averages it to a constant value. This simplification leads to inaccurate estimation of the chloride content. A new analytical solution that addresses the underlying mathematical discrepancy has been proposed. However, the time-dependent diffusion coefficient is still based on an empirical factor. In this study, a real-time durability monitoring system has been developed using remotely operated resistivity sensors. Such a system is able to monitor the time dependent diffusion coefficient without the need to incorporate empirical factors. Additionally, a numerical technique to find an approximation of the proposed improved analytical solution is presented using real-time resistivity measurements from laboratory and real structures. The results show that the discrete sensor data measurements over time provide a good approximation of the proposed analytical solution. The system developed in this study is used as a data-driven input parameter to supplement the existing chloride models.

Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) is one of the degradation mechanisms in concrete that poses a threat to the service life of existing structures. This physio-chemical process is progressive and can affect the the strength, stiffness and stability of concrete structures. A lot of mitigation measures are available to prevent the deleterious effects of ASR in new structures. However, assessment and monitoring of ASR in the existing structures still remain a challenge. Thus the main aim of this thesis is to develop a simplified tool for the assessment of existing structures to assist the asset owners in decision making. This is addressed by a combination of petrographic techniques to quantify the damage and development of a numerical model to predict the remaining service life. Various existing petrographic tools (Damage rating index and image analysis) are investigated and modified to not only identify the ASR signs but also to quantify the damage. A meso-scale numerical model (ASR expansion model) is developed as an extension to the existing Delft Lattice Model to incorporate the effect of ASR by application of randomly distributed internal expansions. A case study (Afsuitdijk, The Netherlands) is used to apply these methods. The model is compared with the findings from the petrographic analysis using a physical parameter 'crack densities'. This model is able to simulate localised network of cracks typical of ASR and expansion strains as a function of time. These expansions are compared with the permissible expansion thresholds set by RILEM and CUR to assess the remaining service life. Additionally, the numerical model showcases the importance of different boundary conditions by making a comparative study between free expansions and concrete in confined state. Finally, the limitations and drawbacks of this expansion model are discussed critically., Civil Engineering | Structural Engineering | Concrete Structures

Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) is one of the degradation mechanisms in concrete that poses a threat to the service life of existing structures. This physio-chemical process is progressive and can affect the the strength, stiffness and stability of concrete structures. A lot of mitigation measures are available to prevent the deleterious effects of ASR in new structures. However, assessment and monitoring of ASR in the existing structures still remain a challenge. Thus the main aim of this thesis is to develop a simplified tool for the assessment of existing structures to assist the asset owners in decision making. This is addressed by a combination of petrographic techniques to quantify the damage and development of a numerical model to predict the remaining service life. Various existing petrographic tools (Damage rating index and image analysis) are investigated and modified to not only identify the ASR signs but also to quantify the damage. A meso-scale numerical model (ASR expansion model) is developed as an extension to the existing Delft Lattice Model to incorporate the effect of ASR by application of randomly distributed internal expansions. A case study (Afsuitdijk, The Netherlands) is used to apply these methods. The model is compared with the findings from the petrographic analysis using a physical parameter 'crack densities'. This model is able to simulate localised network of cracks typical of ASR and expansion strains as a function of time. These expansions are compared with the permissible expansion thresholds set by RILEM and CUR to assess the remaining service life. Additionally, the numerical model showcases the importance of different boundary conditions by making a comparative study between free expansions and concrete in confined state. Finally, the limitations and drawbacks of this expansion model are discussed critically., Civil Engineering | Structural Engineering | Concrete Structures