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The aim is to analyze the bra design features and fit problems of older women and to design solutions to improve bra fit and design for older women. Twenty-six participants aged 62 ± 4 years participated in bra fitting experiments with eight commercial senior bras featuring different design features. The bra design features were firstly quantified into 19 parameters including dimensions and/or curvatures, material properties, bra tension and elongation. The associations between bra design features and related problems were then systematically addressed. The most common fit problem was bulging, which was affected by underarm height ( r = 0.23, p

Warp-knitted spacer fabrics are generally used for sportswear, functional clothing, protective clothing, and other applications. This article studied the heat and mass transfer properties of polyester warp-knitted spacer fabrics from low thickness (2 mm) to high thickness (20 mm), from low mass (247.34 g/m2) to high mass (1,585.9 g/m2), and surface structure in plain or mesh construction. Water vapor permeability, air permeability, water absorption, and thermal insulation property were conducted to evaluate the spacer fabrics. The results revealed that with increasing volume density the water vapor permeability of spacer fabrics decreased, but the water absorption ratio increased. The water vapor permeability of fabrics increased when thickness decreased and volume density increased. It was further found that spacer fabrics with mesh worn nearby the skin and plain structure worn far from the skin could facilitate water vapor and air transmission. The difference of 8.82% for water vapor permeability and 14.19% for air permeability were found between testing mesh side up and down for the spacers (2.56 and 3.37 mm), respectively. Thermal insulation ratio was highly and significantly correlated with heat transfer coefficient at −0.958 and with thickness at 0.917. Thermal insulation ratio is highly and significantly correlated with air permeability at 0.941.

Women wear sanitary pad for whole day during their menstruation period. They have direct skin contact with it even for sleeping and exercising. The presence of sweat and menstrual blood increases the moisture level and the adhesion of liquid to textile causing sensorial discomfort. This study describes the design and uses of modified Textile Stickiness Measurement System (TSMS) which can characterize the frictional properties of sanitary pads under both dry and wet conditions. The uniqueness of this measurement system is that the wetness level of the pad is adjustable and the surface profile of the contacting object (i.e. Lorica®Soft) does simulate the condition of human skin. Also, it does not have restriction on the type of sanitary pad that can be tested. Among the 12 sanitary pads tested (disposable and reusable types), the frictional force for the disposable sanitary pads is lower than the reusable pads whilst the performance of disposable sanitary pads with nonwoven surface is lower than the one with perforated surface. These can attribute to their liquid transport property and surface feature. For those with better liquid transport property, less water will stay on skin surface and so the adhesion between skin and textiles is lower. For those with protruding fibers on its surface, it reduced the contact area and so the frictional force is lower.

Sanitary napkin is worn in direct skin contact and is an essential product for most women. Its liquid transport properties, depending on the material and design, affect skin wetness, skin irritating potential and comfortable feeling. Disposable sanitary napkin is commonly used whilst reusable sanitary napkin is also available in the market for sustainable reason. In this study, a measurement method originated from Forced Flow Water Transport Tester (FFWTT) was introduced which can characterize the direction of liquid transport of sanitary napkin under different pressure loadings. Disposable sanitary napkins with nonwoven or perforated film surface were compared against the reusable sanitary napkins. The results found that the reusable sanitary napkins tend to accumulate more next-to-skin moisture than the disposable sanitary napkin at equivalent loadings. Also, its transplanar wicking is poor. Besides, disposable sanitary napkins incorporated with superabsorbent polymer provide acceptable liquid transport property whilst those made of flex foam give the best performance.

Flexible force and pressure sensors are important for assessing the wear comfort of tightly fitting apparel. Their accuracy and repeatability depend on the sensor itself and the contacting surface. Measurements of the contact pressure on soft surfaces like human skin tend to be erroneous, which could be due to incorrect sensor calibrations. This study aims to examine the effects of human body parameters such as the hardness and temperature of the contacting surface by using a custom-made calibration setup and investigating the incorporation of rigid discs on the sensor surface. Two commercial force sensors, FlexiForce and SingleTact, and one pressure sensor, Pliance X, are used in the investigation. The findings reveal that adding rigid discs on both sides of the force sensors improves their sensitivity. Systematic calibration has been performed on the surfaces with different temperatures and hardness. The results show that FlexiForce and Pliance X tend to be affected by the changes in surface temperature and surface hardness. Prolonged testing time shows that the time dependence of SingleTact and Pliance X sensor is lower, which suggests that they are more suitable for lengthier evaluations in which interface pressure is exerted on the human body. In brief, sensor attachment and proper calibration should be thoroughly considered before using sensors for applications on soft surfaces, like the human body.

Water evaporation from textiles is important for wear comfort, especially for sportswear, casual wear and underwear. Constant Power Drying Rate Tester (CPDRT) offers fast (< 30 minutes) and versatile measurement of drying rate of fabrics. The operating temperature and water supply rate of CPDRT are adjustable to simulate required skin temperature and sweat rate, respectively. Change in weight of the fabric is continuously measured on a heated plate. This allows real-time observation of the entire drying process when fabric is placed on a heated plate supplied with constant power. This provides comprehensive information which is useful for fabric development. A set of 28 fabrics was tested by CPDRT. The temperature of bare sample stage is 37 °C and water delivery rate is set at 10 ml/hr. The key parameter, drying rate (DRCP), ranges from 0.32 to 1.69 ml/hr. Statistical tests are conducted to verify the validity and repeatability of CPDRT.

Traditional flame retardant (FR) treatments may bring detrimental effects on comfort as well as mechanical properties for cotton fabrics. This study investigates whether a novel fabric structure—plant-structured fabric can improve fabric performance after FR treatment. Here, plant-structure fabrics were compared with conventional fabrics of similar weight and thickness. The results revealed plant-structured fabrics tended to retain a higher level of comfort properties than the conventional plain and twill weave fabrics on wettability, thermal conductivity, air resistance and fabric hand feel. Moreover, the tearing strength and tensile strength of the plant-structured fabrics are strongly associated with a higher level of flame resistance as evaluated by the 45° flammability test. This can be attributed to higher fabric sett, the presence of closed pores between the two layers and lower open pore volume at its face. The weave pattern of fabrics was observed through microscope and the thermal decomposition behaviour of fabrics was evaluated by thermal gravimetric analysis.

Cotton, a commonly used textile material, tends to burn easily. For some specific end-uses, flame-retardant (FR) properties are required. However, this kind of finish tends to worsen the hand feel and strength of the fabric. This study explored the feasibility of applying softener and wetting agent during flame-retardant treatment of cotton fabrics to improve their comfort and mechanical properties. Here, flame-retardant agent Pyrovatex CP New, crosslinking agent Knittex CHN, and phosphoric acid were combined with various softeners and wetting agent, and applied to the fabrics using a pad–dry–cure process. Fabric combustibility was evaluated by 45° flammability test. The thermal decomposition behavior and chemical structure of the samples were characterized by thermogravimetric analysis and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, respectively. The thermophysiological comfort properties, hand, and mechanical properties of the fabrics were additionally measured. The results demonstrated that FR-treated cotton specimens had lower strength and poor fabric hand and wettability, which might be caused by formation of crosslinks due to the acidic reaction condition and high curing temperature. Meanwhile, softener addition could compensate for these drawbacks and remarkably improve fabric hand and strength. On the other hand, addition of wetting agents could improve the flame resistance of the FR-treated fabrics.

Water absorption and transport property is a crucial factor affecting the wear comfort. In the textile industry, there are a variety of test methods varying in construction mechanism, amount of water supplied and measurement parameters. In this work, the water absorption and transport properties of fabrics with different geometry and hydrophilicity were characterized by five conventional test methods and two recently developed water transport testers: Spontaneous Uptake Water Transport Tester (SUWTT) and Forced Flow Water Transport Tester (FFWTT). Testing principle of these methods is briefly outlined while their accuracy, efficiency, versatility, reproducibility, sensitivity and validity are systematically compared. The results suggest that FFWTT and SUWTT have superior performance in terms of information provided, testing duration, reproducibility, sensitivity and validity to subjective wetness sensation. In brief, this study helps fabric engineers or hygiene product developers to choose the most suitable water absorption and transport test method when developing new products.

In sportswear industry, the usage of synthetic material is increasing due to its excellent water transport characteristic. This study aims to evaluate the thermo-physiological comfort properties of different sports fabrics and to investigate the effect of fabric physical property and knitting parameter on comfort-related properties of commercial sportswear fabric. Vertical wicking test, wettability test, dry rate test as well as air resistance test were conducted on 17 types of polyester-knitted fabrics obtained from market. Analysis of variance and multiple-comparison least significant difference test was performed to select the best fabric for sportswear. A single jersey fabric sample No. 16 made of 75D/100f in 145 g/m2 as determined to be the best fabric for sports T-shirt due to its excellent wicking property, faster water absorbency, quicker dry rate, and lower air resistance. It is likely that finer filament, low fabric mass, and proper density are associated with best property. Besides, it ...

Water absorption and transport properties of fabrics, including initial contact of liquid with a dry fabric, liquid wicking through a fully saturated medium and removal of liquid from a fabric is important during processing and in use. In this study, the water transport properties of four weft knitted polyester fabrics were comprehensively evaluated and it aims to select the best fabric for badminton sportswear. A recently developed instrument called Spontaneous Uptake Water Transport Tester (SUWTT) and Moisture Management Tester (MMT) was employed to characterize the direction of water transport within a fabric. Other conventional test methods including vertical wicking test, wettability test, water absorbency test, drying test, and water vapor permeability test were also performed. The results showed that the elastic yarn could diminish the water transport performance, dry rate, and water vapor permeability. Sample no. 2 and 3 were recommended for sportswear due to better liquid water transport, dry rate and water vapor permeability.

Heat generated in electronic devices is generally unevenly distributed across the casing. Contacting the hot areas may cause thermal discomfort and possibly skin burn. This study aims at better understanding the interrelationship between the thermal sensation, material properties and surface temperature for enhancing the user experience of electronic devices. A Thermal Simulation System was developed in this study to precisely control the surface temperature of shell materials to simulate various end-use conditions. Seventeen participants were asked to contact the plates with their fingers and rate their thermal sensation using the magnitude estimation approach. Results showed that thermal sensation magnitude and plate temperature followed a power function. The differences in sensation magnitude can be attributed to the thermal inertias of different materials. The findings suggested that laminated plate was generally perceived cooler when heated. Given that the surface temperature of plate is higher than skin, the thermal sensation magnitude increases with contact duration.

Wet and clingy sensation caused by fabric is activated by thermoreceptors and mechanoreceptors and is critical to wearers’ thermophysiological and tactile comfort. This study aims at quantifying the absolute threshold for wet and clingy sensation of apparel fabrics using a psychophysical approach and measuring the residual moisture left on skin through a physical approach. A volar forearm test is proposed where water supply and controlled fabric movement are used to simulate sweating and body movement during wear. The results show that the volar forearm test has good within-judge reliability, between-judge consistency and high sensitivity. The difference in absolute threshold of wet and clingy sensation of fabrics can be attributed to the difference in wicking rate, evaporation rate, geometry and thermal properties of fabrics. The results further suggest that a clingy sensation is triggered when the residual water accumulated on the skin exceeds 0.013 gram, given that the covering fabric is water absorbent. Besides, the absolute threshold for wet and clingy sensation was found strongly correlated with the instrumentally measured water absorption capacity of the fabric. Furthermore, results obtained by the psychophysical threshold method were compared with the psychological wetness rating scale method, and the former was found to be advantageous in terms of testing sensitivity. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS To improve living standards, the textile industry is constantly seeking comfortable apparel fabrics, especially for sportswear, intimate apparel and functional clothing when used under extreme conditions or strenuous activities. The wetness comfort is also important for health-care products since wetness can promote growth of microorganisms, thereby causing dermatitis. In the proposed forearm test, the sweat rate and the degree of fabric movement is adjustable, which simulates varying levels of activity. This study demonstrates the feasibility of using an absolute threshold to assess moisture sensation of apparel fabrics. It may be beneficial to textile/clothing manufacturers to improve existing products or develop new products for specific end uses. Since our study shows that water absorption capacity of fabric has a strong correlation with wet and clingy sensation, instrumental measurement can be employed as a routine fabric performance analysis to substitute the time-consuming human subjective assessment.

Wetness sensation is a crucial factor affecting wear comfort. In this study, a measurement method that is capable of characterizing the subjective wetness sensation of various textile products, such as sportswear, leisurewear, uniforms and health-care products, was developed. A subjective rating scale was adopted for response measurement and 20 different fabrics varying in fiber composition, yarn type and fabric structure were evaluated by 22 subjects. The testing procedure was standardized, ensuring within-subject reliability and between-subject consistency. This method also displays high sensitivity and the result is rational with barely to slightly wet sensation for the absorbing fabrics and very wet feeling for the hydrophobic ones. In addition, an objective measurement method for evaluating the horizontal wicking area of fabrics utilizing the image analysis technique was developed. Using conventional testing instruments, such as the Gravimetric Absorbency Testing System, Moisture Management Tester, international standard testing methods and the proposed horizontal wicking tester, various objective water absorption and transport properties were measured and their correlation with the subjective wetness rating was studied. Horizontal wicking area and water absorption capacity of fabrics were found to have strong correlation with subjective wetness sensation.

The liquid absorption and transport properties of fabrics are critical not only to the success of wet processes such as dyeing, printing and finishing, but also to the performance of products such as sports clothes, performance clothing, disposable hygiene materials and medical products. During wear, moisture in clothing has been found to be the most significant factor contributing to discomfort. The presence of sweat will increase friction between fabric and skin, trigger a clingy sensation and eventually increase the level of fatigue felt by the wearer. This problem will be even more severe for clothing worn under extreme environmental conditions or at high activity levels. Fabrics with excellent water absorption and transport properties have the potential to minimise the wetness sensation on skin, facilitate the evaporation of sweat and aid comfort. Hence, as a product developer or clothing manufacturer, it is essential to choose the appropriate measurement method to characterise the water absorption a...

In this paper, electroless silver plating process for polyester was reported. The electroless silver plating is basically divided into four stages including pre-cleaning, sensitisation, electroless silver deposition and post-treatment. As the electroless silver plating stage is the key stage in affecting the brilliant appearance and various functional properties such as conductivity and ultra-violet protection, we will study the effect of process variables, i.e. amount of silver nitrate (AgNO3), concentration of ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH), concentration of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and process temperature, using increased amount of silver in fabric surface as an indicator, for optimising the electroless silver plating process for possible industrial application. Experimental results revealed that amount of silver nitrate (AgNO3)=1.77×10−3 mole; concentration of ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH)=6.25 %; concentration of sodium hydroxide (NaOH)=0.008 g/ml and process temperature=25 °C can give the best electroless silver plating for polyester fabric. The surface characteristics of the electroless silver-plated polyester fabric were evaluated by scanning electron microscope, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction analysis. Meanwhile, the performance properties of the electroless silver-plated polyester fabric were measured by CIE L*, a* and b* values, conductivity as well as ultraviolet protection. The experimental results would be discussed thoroughly in this paper.

The water absorption and transport properties of fabrics are critical to wear comfort, especially for sportswear and protective clothing. A new testing apparatus, namely Forced Flow Water Transport Tester (FFWTT), was developed for characterizing the transplanar and in-plane wicking properties of fabrics based on gravimetric and image analysis technique. The uniqueness of this instrument is that the rate of water supply is adjustable to simulate varying sweat rates with reference to the specific end-use conditions ranging from sitting, walking, running to other strenuous activities. This instrument is versatile in terms of the types of fabrics that can be tested. Twenty four types of fabrics with varying constructions and surface finishes were tested. The results showed that FFWTT was highly sensitive and reproducible in differentiating these fabrics and it suggests that water absorption and transport properties of fabrics are sweat rate-dependent. Additionally, two graphic methods were proposed to map the direction of liquid transport and its relation to skin wetness, which provides easy and direct comparison among different fabrics. Correlation analysis showed that FFWTT results have strong correlation with subjective wetness sensation, implying validity and usefulness of the instrument.

Water absorption and transport property of textiles is important since it affects wear comfort, efficiency of treatment and functionality of product. This paper introduces an accurate and reliable measurement tester, which is based on gravimetric and image analysis technique, for characterising the transplanar and in-plane wicking property of fabrics. The uniqueness of this instrument is that it is able to directly measure the water absorption amount in real-time, monitor the direction of water transport and estimate the amount of water left on skin when sweating. Throughout the experiment, water supply is continuous which simulates profuse sweating. Testing automation could even minimise variation caused by subjective manipulation, thus enhancing testing accuracy. This instrument is versatile in terms of the fabrics could be tested. A series of shirting fabrics made by different fabric structure and yarn were investigated and the results show that the proposed method has high sensitivity in differentiating fabrics with varying geometrical differences. Fabrics with known hydrophobicity were additionally tested to examine the sensitivity of the instrument. This instrument also demonstrates the flexibility to test on high performance moisture management fabrics and these fabrics were found to have excellent transplanar and in-plane wicking properties.