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A reliable and comparative fungicide index (FI) was assessed to describe the fungicide use in the agricultural land of Europe during the first 20 years of the twenty-first century (from 2000 to 2018). FI is not uniform across EU27. The highest mean value (1.34 kg ha−1) of FI was observed in Southern Europe compared to the other sub-regions of the EU, while this variation existed mainly due to the inorganic fungicide use. The mean value of inorganic fungicide index (FIinorg) in agricultural land area (AL) in Southern Europe was 1.69 kg ha−1, about three times higher than the average value (0.63 kg ha−1) across the EU. The higher mean values of organic fungicide index (FIorg) in conventional agricultural land area (convAL) was observed in Western Europe (0.54 kg ha−1), while an upward trend was observed in the FIorg mainly in Central and Eastern and Northern Europe during the period 2000–2018. Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) of 19 agri-environmental indicators (FI, FIorg, FIinorg, agricultural land use, crop groups, fungicide chemical families) was assessed to describe this differentiation of the four geographical sub-regions of EU. Despite the linear growth of the organic farmland area, the fungicide use in the agricultural land remained relatively stable, while the larger the farm size (ha), the greater the amounts (kg of a.s.) of fungicides which were used in the cropland of EU. The impact assessment of each variable which was examined on the FI could contribute to the implementation of European agricultural policy, reducing in this way the environmental impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The environmental impact of commercial Mediterranean kiwifruit ‘Hayward’ orchards was assessed after ten years of continuous cultivation. Species diversity seems to be influenced both by the subcanopy photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) budget, and the usual agricultural practices in conventional orchards. The largest reduction of species diversity (~64%) was observed in kiwifruit orchards with pergola canopy structure followed by that in T-bar canopy structure (~34%) in comparison with new installed kiwifruit orchards. In excessive shading conditions and particularly in well irrigated kiwifruit orchards with the synergistic effect of the above variables, the highest reduction of plant species has occurred. The continuous herbicides application and the soil compaction are strongly correlated with the reduction of taxa, while the long-term agricultural practices, such as inorganic fertilizers and Cu-fungicides application, have a negative impact on plant species diversity in kiwifruit orchards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cu2+ binding on γ-Al2O3 is modulated by common electrolyte ions such as Mg2+, SO42-, and PO43- in a complex manner: (a) At high concentrations of electrolyte ions, Cu2+ uptake by γ-Al2O3 is inhibited. This is partially due to bulk ionic strength effects and, mostly, due to direct competition between Mg2+ and Cu2+ ions for the ≡SO− surface sites of γ-Al2O3. (b) At low concentrations of electrolyte ions, Cu2+ uptake by γ-Al2O3 can be enhanced. This is due to synergistic coadsorption of Cu2+ and electrolyte anions, SO42- and PO43-. This results in the formation of ternary surface species (≡SOH2SO4Cu)+, (≡SOH2PO4Cu), and (≡SOH2HPO4Cu)+ which enhance Cu2+ uptake at pH < 6. The effect of phosphate ions may be particularly strong resulting in a 100% Cu uptake by the oxide surface. (c) EPR spectroscopy shows that at pH ≪ pHPZC, Cu2+ coordinates to one ≡SO− group. Phosphate anions form stronger, binary or ternary, surface species than sulfate anions. At pH ≫ pHPZC Cu2+ may coordinate to two ≡SO− groups. At pH ≪ pHPZC electrolyte ions SO42- and PO43-are bridging one O-atom from the γ-Al2O3 surface and one Cu2+ ion forming ternary [γ-Al2O3/elecrolyte/Cu2+] species. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Cd2+ binding on γ-Al2O3 was studied in the presence of the common electrolyte ions Mg2+, SO2−4, and NO−3 at high and low concentrations. Direct measurements were performed for Cd2+ as well as for electrolyte ion adsorption as a function of pH. The experimental data reveal that Cd2+ binding on γ-Al2O3 is modulated by the electrolyte ions in a complex manner. At high electrolyte concentration, Cd2+ uptake by γ-Al2O3 is inhibited. Theoretical analysis by a surface complexation model shows that this effect can be attributed partially to bulk, ionic strength, and effect of the electrolyte, but the most significant inhibition is due to direct competition between Mg2+ and Cd2+ ions for the ≡SO− surface sites of γ-Al2O3. At low concentration of electrolyte ions, Cd2+ uptake by γ-Al2O3 can be enhanced due to synergistic co-adsorption of Cd2+ and electrolyte anions, particularly SO2−4 and to a lesser extent NO−3. The theoretical analysis shows that this co-adsorption is due to formation of ternary surface species (≡SOH2SO4Cd) and (≡SOH2NO3Cd) which enhance Cd-uptake at pH values well below the point of zero charge of the γ-Al2O3. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]