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Palaeognathae consists of five groups of extant species: flighted tinamous (1) and four flightless groups: kiwi (2), cassowaries and emu (3), rheas (4), and ostriches (5). Molecular studies supported the groupings of extinct moas with tinamous and elephant birds with kiwi as well as ostriches as the group that diverged first among the five groups. However, phylogenetic relationships among the five groups are still controversial. Previous studies showed extensive heterogeneity in estimated gene tree topologies from conserved nonexonic elements, introns, and ultraconserved elements. Using the noncoding loci together with protein-coding loci, this study investigated the factors that affected gene tree estimation error and the relationships among the five groups. Using closely related ostrich rather than distantly related chicken as the outgroup, concatenated and gene tree–based approaches supported rheas as the group that diverged first among groups (1)–(4). Whereas gene tree estimation error increased using loci with low sequence divergence and short length, topological bias in estimated trees occurred using loci with high sequence divergence and/or nucleotide composition bias and heterogeneity, which more occurred in trees estimated from coding loci than noncoding loci. Regarding the relationships of (1)–(4), the site patterns by parsimony criterion appeared less susceptible to the bias than tree construction assuming stationary time-homogeneous model and suggested the clustering of kiwi and cassowaries and emu the most likely with ∼40% support rather than the clustering of kiwi and rheas and that of kiwi and tinamous with 30% support each. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A two-phase translocation of Hamilton's frog (Leiopelma hamiltoni) into Zealandia Ecosanctuary Te Māra a Tāne, in Wellington, was the first attempt to restore the species to the mainland. All non-native mammals had been eradicated there, but house mice (Mus musculus) re-invaded, providing an opportunity to investigate their impact on L. hamiltoni. In Phase I, 60 frogs were translocated into mouse-proof enclosures over 2006-2007. Twelve months into Phase I, 29 surviving frogs were kept in a predator-proof enclosure, and 29 surviving frogs were released into adjacent forest, then monitored over eight months. Survival and recruitment were high in the enclosure, but low in the forest. For Phase II, a further 101 frogs were released in 2012, after a fence had been erected around the release site to exclude little spotted kiwi (Apteryx owenii), a potential predator. In Phase II, frog survival and mouse numbers were monitored over nine months, with mouse density being suppressed by annual poisoning operations. On night surveys, 86 of the 101 released frogs were recaptured in the forest, plus four adults from the Phase I release and twelve of their progeny. Overall survival was 0.914 (0.87-0.94 95% CI), but population estimates indicated a negative trend from the second capture period. Negative binomial generalised linear modelling showed temperature was positively correlated with frog emergence (p < 0.001). Relative humidity approached significance for frog emergence (p = 0.0517), but mouse activity, precipitation during sampling, and precipitation the previous 24 hours did not impact emergence (p > 0.05). Surviving adult and young L. hamiltoni from Phase I demonstrated some capacity for survival in protected mainland areas with invasive mammal control in place. However, further studies are warranted to better determine their longer-term survival in Zealandia and alongside the threat of mice, as well as of avian predators such as kiwi, and more generally of other invasive mammals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To investigate the cardiac anatomy of North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) through heart morphometric parameters measured at post-mortem examination. Morphometric cardiac parameters were established at post-mortem examination of 20 North Island brown kiwi. Birds were classified by gender and age (chicks vs. adults). Measurements included: body mass, heart mass, sternal length, midpoint thickness of left ventricular free wall, midpoint thickness of right ventricular free wall and ratios of heart mass to body mass, left ventricular length to sternal length, right ventricular length to sternal length, length of left ventricle to right ventricle, interventricular septal thickness relative to the sternal length and interventricular septal thickness relative to the left ventricular length. Unadjusted estimates of the median difference and their 95% CI were then reported at each age and sex for all the cardiac morphometric parameters and their ratios. The small sample size led to wide 95% CI for the median difference between gender and age for the cardiac morphometric measurements. Nevertheless, between adult female and male kiwi, the estimated population median differences for heart mass (2.2 (95% CI = −2.9–5.6) g), length (1.2 (95% CI = −2.2–5.6) mm), width (6.1 (95% CI = −1.0–8.2) mm), left ventricular free wall length (5.5 (95% CI = −0.5–8.8) mm) and right ventricular free wall length (2.6 (95% CI = −3.7–6.9) mm) were established. In adult North Island brown kiwi, the heart mass is 0.8 (95% CI = 0.7–0.8)% of the body mass. The precision of the differences noted in heart measurements recorded between male and female kiwi at each age was limited by the low sample size available for this study. This led to wide CI and an inability to adjust differences observed for gender by differences in other confounders such as body size. With this caveat, there is weak evidence that adult female kiwi have a larger heart size and mass than the adult males. These results can be used to improve the diagnosis of cardiac disease in kiwi at post-mortem examination and aid in interpretation of the results of echocardiography in live birds for the antemortem diagnosis of cardiac disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To examine and assess causes of mortality of kiwi (Apteryx spp.) submitted to Massey University between 2010 and 2020 across the five recognised species according to location, age group and captivity status in New Zealand. Post-mortem reports were obtained from the Massey University/Te Kunenga ki Pūrehuroa School of Veterinary Science/Wildbase Pathology Register. Inclusion criteria were all species of kiwi with a date of post-mortem examination between August 2010 and August 2020. Data from each report was exported, categorised and compared using Microsoft Excel. Of a total of 1,005 post-mortem reports, there were 766 North Island brown kiwi (NIBK; A. mantelli), 83 tokoeka (A. australis), 73 rowi (A. rowi), 49 great spotted kiwi (A. haastii), and 34 little spotted kiwi (A. owenii). This comprised 19 eggs/embryos, 125 neonatal, 473 juvenile, 153 subadult, and 235 adult kiwi. There were 615 kiwi from wild populations, 148 from sanctuary populations, 238 from captivity, and four from unspecified locations. The leading cause of death was trauma, affecting 322 (32.0 (95% CI = 29.2–35.0)%) kiwi including 289 (37.3 (95% CI = 26.0–31.7)%) NIBK. Nearly half of these died from predation by mustelids, with losses recorded from neonates to adults and clustered in the central to southern North Island. Predation by dogs was the second most common cause of death, killing 84 (8.4 (95% CI = 6.7–10.2)%) kiwi, of which 65.5% came from the northern districts of the North Island. Non-infectious disease killed 214 (21 (95% CI = 18.8–24.0)%) kiwi, and included developmental deformities, gastrointestinal foreign bodies and predator trap injuries. Infectious disease killed 181 (18.0 (95% CI = 15.7–20.5)%) kiwi and the proportion decreased with age, with common diagnoses including coccidiosis, bacterial septicaemia, avian malaria, and fungal respiratory disease. Starvation affected 42 (4.2 (95% CI = 3.0–5.6)%) kiwi, comprised of mainly neonatal or juvenile individuals from wild or sanctuary populations, with a higher percentage seen in tokoeka (11/83; 13.3%) compared to other species (min 0%, max 5.9%). The cause of death was undetermined in 246 (24.5 (95% CI = 21.8–27.3)%) cases, which was most often due to poor preservation of remains. This included 33/73 (46%) rowi and 32/83 (39%) tokoeka, and affected mainly birds from sanctuary and wild populations. This study enhances our understanding of causes of mortality in captive, wild and sanctuary populations of all kiwi species and age groups within contemporary New Zealand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information on the day-time roost areas of North Island brown kiwi (NIBK) (Apteryx mantelli), particularly post-translocation, is limited. This study aimed to determine the day-time roost areas of newly translocated NIBK and compare these with birds that had established from a translocation in the previous year. Radio telemetry was used to monitor sub-adult NIBK in the first three weeks post-translocation simultaneously with birds released in the previous year. The data from 15 birds (nine translocated in 2014 and six translocated in 2013) were used to calculate the area over which roost sites were distributed. Areas were estimated using Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP, Ha) and 50 percentile kernel density estimation (KDE, Ha). No significant difference in MCP was determined between newly translocated 2014 birds (21.3 Ha, SE 7.92) and those translocated in 2013 (22.85 Ha, SE 10.84) or between KDE50 for 2013 birds (16.30 Ha, SE 7.44) compared with 2014 birds (20.66 Ha, SE 8.29). Within the first three weeks post-translocation, most of the 2014 birds remained within the vicinity of their release site, which may be due to a combination of suitable habitat/roost sites and the 'anchoring' effect of previously established 2013 birds. This study provides new information on roost areas of newly translocated NIBK and highlights the importance of post-translocation monitoring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to take lessons for academic researchers and policymakers by examining the theory and practice of the social ecology approach, which is studied as an alternative model to climate change, capitalism and state organization discussions through field applications. To achieve this aim, the basic concepts of ecological society to urban were examined through the practices in southeastern Türkiye and northern Syria. In the study, an answer has been sought to the research question of “Are social ecology-based field practices and theory compatible” The ecological approach, which envisages a social design centered on nature, is examined in the context of four criteria (political, administrative, social and economic). In this part of the discussion, the field practices are examined to reflect the theory in practice, considering the political, administrative, social, and economic suggestions. Contrary to the rhetoric, it has been explained with the kiwi bird metaphor that the practices of PKK/KCK do not adequately reflect Bookchin’s social ecology approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Avian malaria refers to the parasitic blood infection caused by species of Plasmodium. Plasmodium spp. have a worldwide distribution and records of mortality extend across a range of bird orders and species. In wild bird populations, infection is maintained within reservoir hosts, which are able to tolerate a chronic, low level of parasitism generally without severe health consequences. The introduction of these adapted avian species and their malarial parasites to naïve bird populations has resulted in devastating impacts on some non-adapted bird species, with the demise of Hawaiian amakihi as a pertinent example. In New Zealand, avian malaria was first recorded in introduced blackbirds (Turdus merula) in the 1920s, and reports of mortality in endemic and native bird species have been sporadic over the last three decades. Of the five species of kiwi, four are considered at risk or threatened by conservation standards. Here, we aim to describe the pathology of avian malaria as a cause of mortality in kiwi (Apteryx spp.) and the species of Plasmodium involved to further our understanding of this disease in arguably the most iconic of New Zealand's endemic birds. Avian malaria caused by Plasmodium species is a known cause of mortality in avifauna worldwide, however reports within New Zealand kiwi (Apteryx spp.) are scant. Postmortem reports from kiwi were obtained from the Massey University/Te Kunenga ki Pūrehuroa School of Veterinary Science Pathology Register from August 2010–August 2020. Gross lesions were described from postmortem reports, and archived H.E.-stained slides used for histological assessment. Nested PCR testing was performed on formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue samples to assess the presence of Plasmodium spp. and Toxoplasma gondii DNA and cases with a PCR-positive result were sequenced to determine the lineage involved. Of 1005 postmortem reports, 23 cases of confirmed or suspected avian malaria were included in this study. The most consistent gross lesions included splenomegaly, hepatomegaly, and interstitial pneumonia with oedema. Histological lesions were characterised by severe interstitial pneumonia, pulmonary oedema, interstitial myocarditis, hepatic sinusoidal congestion and hypercellularity, and splenic macrophage hyperplasia and hyperaemia/congestion with numerous haemosiderophages. Cytoplasmic meronts were consistently found within endothelial cells of a variety of tissues, and within tissue macrophages of the liver, lung and spleen. A diagnosis of avian malaria was confirmed via PCR testing in 13 cases, with sequencing revealing P. matutinum (LINN1) and P. elongatum (GRW6) as the species involved. This is the largest case series describing the pathology of avian malaria as a cause of mortality in endemic New Zealand avifauna. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many nocturnal avian species, such as Strigiformes, Caprimulgiformes and Apterygiformes, have sensitive vibrotactile bristles on their upper bill, especially on their rictus. The anatomy of these bristles can vary, especially in terms of sensitivity (Herbst corpuscle number), bristle length and bristle number. This variation is thought to be associated with foraging – such that diurnal, open foragers have smaller and less‐sensitive bristles. Here, we describe bristle morphology and follicle anatomy in the western barn owl (Tyto alba) for the first time, using both live and roadkill wild owls. We show that T. alba have both narial and rictal bristles that are likely to be vibrotactile, since they have Herbst corpuscles around their follicles. We observed more numerous (~8) and longer bristles (~16 mm) on the nares of T. alba, than on the rictal region (~4 and ~13 mm respectively). However, the narial bristle follicles contained fewer Herbst corpuscles in their surroundings (~5) than the rictal bristles (~7); indicating that bristle length is not indicative of sensitivity. As well as bristle length and number varying between different facial regions, they also varied between individuals, although the cause of this variation remains unclear. Despite this variation, the gross anatomy of facial bristle follicles appears to be conserved between nocturnal Strigiformes, Caprimulgiformes and Apterygiformes. Understanding more about how T. alba use their bristles would, therefore, give us greater insights into the function of avian bristles in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The breeding system and mating strategy of a species are at the heart of its behavioral ecology and part of determining its population dynamics. Thus, understanding breeding and mating behavior, and its flexibility, is important for accurate population modeling and successful conservation management. Here, we combine previous work with species‐specific data and phylogenetic context to shine the spotlight on the breeding system of North Island (NI) brown kiwi, Apteryx mantelli, in a conservation context. The NI brown kiwi is of wide interest as a ratite, which are known for their variable breeding biology both within and between species, and its dire need of conservation management. With the aid of data from a long‐term study in a rare, high‐density population, we conclude that, although NI brown kiwi have several features characteristic of monogamous bird species (substantial investment in offspring by both parents, long‐life expectancy, and well‐developed sense of olfaction), it has as many that are consistent with potential for polygamy (uneven quality and distribution of resources, long and asynchronous breeding season, super‐precocial chicks, and non‐monogamous relatives). Consequently, we suggest that (1) the breeding system of NI brown kiwi is more flexible than has been widely recognized, and (2) further study of NI brown kiwi mating behavior would greatly benefit its conservation planning. Specifically, the prevalence of polygamy will directly affect genetic admixture, maintaining of genetic diversity, and distribution of parentage—all crucial factors influencing translocation success and genetic rescue. We argue that the NI brown kiwi study system could contribute to the increased incorporation of behavioral aspects in conservation management, and we provide suggestions for informative studies that would facilitate this. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We studied the behaviour of 15 captive brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli), and the effects of disturbance on their behaviour. They were all held in nocturnal display facilities, known in New Zealand as Kiwi Houses and referred to here as enclosures 1–4. Our detailed study first compiled a baseline assessment of normal behaviours of captive kiwi from which to define the abnormal. We found that abnormal behaviours (pacing and startle responses) were usually stimulated by one of three different sources of disturbance: noise generated by visitors viewing the kiwi through glass-viewing windows, noise resulting from heavy rainfall, and keeper interactions. As noise was a major contribution to disturbance, we quantified the volume of sound that reached the interior of the kiwi display spaces within each enclosure, and correlated it with kiwi behaviour. Our results show how abnormal behaviours among captive kiwi can be minimised by eliminating or reducing disturbances, and we suggest how the design and structure of the enclosures can be improved in the future by mitigating noise disturbance, (1) from visitors by installation of double or triple glazed window joinery, and (2) from outside by greater insulation in the roof and walls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe Apteryx littoralis sp. nov., a new species of kiwi based on a 1-million-year-old tarsometatarsus from shallow marine sediment in the North Island of New Zealand. The fossil is very similar to the tarsometatarsi of living kiwi species, most closely resembling Apteryx rowi and A. mantelli in size and shape, but differs in being stouter, with proportionally narrower proximal and distal ends. The new fossil is the second oldest known record of kiwi. It demonstrates a relatively conservative kiwi morphology since the mid-Pleistocene. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Small and fragmented populations may become rapidly differentiated due to genetic drift, making it difficult to distinguish whether neutral genetic structure is a signature of recent demographic events, or of long-term evolutionary processes that could have allowed populations to adaptively diverge. We sequenced 52 whole genomes to examine Holocene demographic history and patterns of adaptation in kiwi (Apteryx), and recovered 11 strongly differentiated genetic clusters corresponding to previously recognized lineages. Demographic models suggest that all 11 lineages experienced dramatic population crashes relative to early- or mid-Holocene levels. Small population size is associated with low genetic diversity and elevated genetic differentiation (FST), suggesting that population declines have strengthened genetic structure and led to the loss of genetic diversity. However, population size is not correlated with inbreeding rates. Eight lineages show signatures of lineage-specific selective sweeps (284 sweeps total) that are unlikely to have been caused by demographic stochasticity. Overall, these results suggest that despite strong genetic drift associated with recent bottlenecks, most kiwi lineages possess unique adaptations and should be recognized as separate adaptive units in conservation contexts. Our work highlights how whole-genome datasets can address longstanding uncertainty about the evolutionary and conservation significance of small and fragmented populations of threatened species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A 7-month-old male North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) was transferred from a European zoological park to a North American private aviary. The bird appeared clinically normal upon arrival, but within 30 days, it developed clinical disease signs of sneezing, stridor, and increased respiratory effort. Upon examination a 1-mm yellow plaque was identified on the glottis. After 14 days of empiric treatment with enrofloxacin, meloxicam, and itraconazole, on repeat examination, the glottal plaque had increased in size to a 7-mm-diameter friable mass attached to the right laryngeal cartilage and was partially obstructing the airway. Initially, 80% of the mass was manually dislodged, but within 4 days the tissue mass had again enlarged to approximately 3 mm × 4 mm × 4 mm, prompting surgical excision. On histopathologic examination, the mass was identified as a benign salivary gland adenoma without clear margins. Approximately 3 years postexcision, there is no evidence of tumor regrowth. The successful excision of a benign salivary tumor described in this report will serve as a valuable guide for future cases of similar neoplasms diagnosed in the oral cavity of kiwis and other avian species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Osteohistology, the study of bone microstructure, provides an important avenue for assessing extinct and extant vertebrate growth and life history. Cortical vascularity and collagen fibre organization are direct reflections of growth rate, while bone growth marks are indicative of absolute age. However, each skeletal element has its own ontogenetic trajectory and microstructure of certain bones may not be a true representation of whole body growth. Extensive comparative study of modern taxa is required to resolve intraskeletal discrepancies among age, vascularity and tissue organization in extinct vertebrates. Despite their comparative utility, studies of bone microstructure in modern taxa are severely lacking. Here, we add to a growing comparative osteohistological database by describing (1) bone tissue organization, (2) growth mark count, (3) sexually dimorphic bone (e.g. medullary bone) and (4) secondary cortical reconstruction in the bone microstructure of a 14‐year‐old male and 5‐year‐old female North Island Brown Kiwi (Apteryx mantelli). Transverse and longitudinal histological ground sections were processed and described for femora, tibiotarsi, tarsometatarsi, humeri, ulnae and radii in both kiwis. Cortical bone can generally be described as parallel‐fibered tissue, interrupted by cyclical growth marks, with vascular canals oriented longitudinally within primary and secondary osteons. Tissue morphologically resembling medullary bone is present in the hindlimbs of the female, and coarse compacted cancellous bone (CCCB) is found sporadically in the male and female hindlimbs. Lines of arrested growth (LAGs) are present in all hindlimb bones of both kiwi, but remodelling has obliterated all LAGs in the male ulnae and radii. LAG count varies intraskeletally, but large weight bearing elements such as femora and tibiotarsi have less remodelling and, thus, higher number of LAGs. LAG count did not match absolute age in any skeletal element; a maximum of seven LAGs are present in the male kiwi and a maximum of seven LAGs in the female kiwi. The tissue organization within the forelimbs and hindlimbs is reflective of the protracted growth strategy of the North Island Brown Kiwi and congruent with previous studies of the kiwi. LAGs were highly variable throughout the skeleton of the kiwi and a decoupling of age and LAG deposition is apparent from the male kiwi samples. Excess LAGs in the 5‐year‐old female kiwi may be a product of hatching, egg laying or captivity. Regardless, LAG count variation in the kiwi stresses the importance of intraskeletal sampling when assessing growth patterns of extinct taxa. An extensive ontogenetic sampling of kiwi is necessary for future investigations of bone growth patterns, CCCB formation, medullary bone and LAG deposition and obliteration in these elusive birds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Numerous laboratory and fewer field-based studies have found that ixodid ticks develop more quickly and survive better at temperatures between 18 °C and 26 °C and relative humidity (RH) between 75 and 94%. Ixodes anatis Chilton, 1904, is an endophilic, nidicolous species endemic to North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) (NIBK) and the tokoeka (Apteryx australis), and little is known about the environmental conditions required for its development. The aims of this study were to determine and compare the conditions of temperature and RH that ensure the best survival of the kiwi tick and the shortest interstadial periods, in laboratory conditions and outdoors inside artificial kiwi burrows. Methods: Free-walking engorged ticks were collected off wild kiwi hosts and placed in the laboratory under various fixed temperature and humidity regimes. In addition, sets of the collected ticks at different developmental stages were placed in artificial kiwi burrows. In both settings, we recorded the times taken for the ticks to moult to the next stage. Results: Larvae and nymphs both showed optimum development at between 10 °C and 20 °C, which is lower than the optimum temperature for development in many other species of ixodid ticks. However, larvae moulted quicker and survived better when saturation deficits were < 1–2 mmHg (RH > 94%); in comparison, the optimum saturation deficits for nymph development were 1–10 mmHg. Conclusions: Our results suggest that the kiwi tick has adapted to the stable, but relatively cool and humid conditions in kiwi burrows, reflecting the evolutionary consequences of its association with the kiwi. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Worldwide, there is growing appreciation of the importance of integrating genetic information into conservation management. However, there are commonly occurring problems which impact on doing this successfully. This issue is well illustrated by kiwi Apteryx species. Like many endangered taxa, extant kiwi populations are small, fragmented and isolated, raising concerns of potential inbreeding depression. Accordingly, kiwi conservation includes discussion of genetic management and translocations. To date, kiwi taxa have been the subject of 41 genetic studies. Here we provide the first synthesized review of these studies. We conclude that despite the impressive study effort, current understanding of kiwi genetics is insufficient to guide genetic management, predict translocation outcomes and manage biological diversity to achieve future sustainability of the species. We explain why, and outline research questions that can be addressed with new genome science technologies. Using new technologies to build on the foundation of work already undertaken, we see a great opportunity to address key issues for North Island Brown Kiwi Apteryx mantelli that are central to the conservation concerns for many threatened species. Specifically, we suggest that historical, disjunct, mainland populations combined with translocations of North Island Brown Kiwi to offshore islands have generated unique case studies to investigate the effects of fragmentation, cessation of gene flow, inbreeding, outbreeding and hybridization on biological diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Passive acoustic surveys provide a convenient and cost-effective way to monitor animal populations, and methods for conducting and analysing such surveys are undergoing rapid development. However, no standard metric exists to evaluate the proposed changes. Furthermore, the metrics that are commonly used are specific to a single stage of the survey workflow, and may not reflect the overall effects of a design choice. Here, we attempt to define the effectiveness of acoustic surveys conducted in two common frameworks of population inference—occupancy modelling and spatially explicit capture-recapture (SCR). Specifically, we investigate precision as a possible metric of survey performance, but we observe that it does not lead to generally optimal designs in occupancy modelling. In contrast, the precision of the SCR density estimate can be optimised with fewer experiment-specific parameters. We illustrate these issues using simulations. We further demonstrate how SCR precision can be used to evaluate design choices on a field survey of little spotted kiwi (Apteryx owenii). We compare call recognition by software and human experts. The resulting tradeoff between missed calls and faster data throughput was accurately captured with the proposed metric, while common metrics failed to identify optimal improvements and could be inflated by deleting data. Due to the flexibility of SCR framework, the approach presented here can be applied to a wide range of different survey designs. As the precision is directly related to the power of subsequent inference, this metric evaluates design choices at the application level and captures tradeoffs that are missed by stage-specific metrics, enabling reliable comparison of survey methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New Zealand's iconic, flightless and endangered species of kiwi (Apterygidae) are at risk of extinction on the mainland due to predation by introduced mammals. In order to provide effective conservation management a robust understanding of genetic variation in the group is needed. Recent genomic analyses of kiwi suggest that several cryptic and as yet undescribed lineages occur in the South Island, most notably within a taxon that has until now been called Apteryx australis australis, the South Island Brown Kiwi or Tokoeka. In order for these lineages to be formally described and treated as separate conservation units it is first necessary to determine from which lineage of Tokoeka the holotype was collected. To determine this, we generated a near complete mitochondrial genome and nuclear SNP dataset for the holotype and compared these with living kiwi populations. Our results definitively assign the holotype to the Stewart Island population of brown kiwi which until now was recognized as a distinct subspecies Apteryx australis lawyri (Rothschild, 1893). This leads us to synonymize Apteryx lawryi Rothschild, 1893 within Apteryx australis Shaw, 1813. As the holotype was collected by sealers in the early 19th century, the result also provides a novel insight into the activities of early sealers in New Zealand. New names for taxa will need to be erected for any mainland South Island taxa described, because there are no scientific names available for taxonomy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Kiwi (Apteryx spp.) are flightless ratites from New Zealand whose numbers and distributions have declined following human arrival. Some of the kiwi species are known to hybridise but the extent of hybridization is unknown. Methods: We reviewed hybridisation in kiwi (Apteryx spp.) and present new genetic data examining the extent of hybridisation between Rowi (A. rowi) and Little Spotted Kiwi (A. owenii) at Okarito, the location of the only remaining natural population of the threatened Rowi. We also genetically examined the syntype specimens of A. haastii Potts, 1872, collected from near Okarito in the 1870s, which have unusual morphologies. Results: We found evidence of recurrent hybridisation between Rowi and Little Spotted Kiwi over the last 150 years, including one F1 hybrid found in the last 15 years, despite Little Spotted Kiwi's likely extinction on the mainland in the 1970s. However, we found little evidence of introgression of Little Spotted Kiwi alleles into the extant Rowi population. The syntype specimens of A. haastii were also found to be hybrids between Little Spotted Kiwi and Rowi. Conclusions: Our genetic analyses indicate that, although we detected multiple instances of hybridisation between Rowi and Little Spotted Kiwi, it does not appear to be an ongoing threat to Rowi. Because the syntype specimens of A. haastii are hybrids and therefore not representative of the prevailing usage of the name for the Great Spotted Kiwi (A. haastii), we resurrect the nomen oblitum A. maxima Sclater and Hochstetter, 1861 for the large spotted kiwi species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Birds exhibit an enormous diversity in adult skull shape (disparity), while their embryonic chondrocrania are considered to be conserved across species. However, there may be chondrocranial features that are diagnostic for bird clades or for Aves as a whole. We synthesized and analyzed information on the sequence of chondrification of 23 elements in ten bird species and five outgroups. Moreover, we critically considered the developmental morphology of the chondrocrania of 21 bird species and examined whether the diversity in adult skull shape is reflected in the development of the embryonic skull, and whether there are group-specific developmental patterns. Results: We found that chondrocranial morphology is largely uniform in its major features, with some variation in the presence or absence of fenestrae and other parts. In kiwis (Apteryx), the unique morphology of the bony skull in the orbito-nasal region is reflected in its chondrocranial anatomy. Finally, differences in morphology and chondrification sequence may distinguish between different Palaeognathae and Neognathae and between the Galloanserae and Neoaves. The sequence of chondrification is largely conserved in birds, but with some variation in most regions. The peri- and prechordal areas in the base of the chondrocranium are largely conserved. In contrast to the outgroups, chondrification in birds starts in the acrochordal cartilage and the basicranial fenestra is formed secondarily. Further differences concern the orbital region, including early chondrification of the pila antotica and the late formation of the planum supraseptale. Conclusion: Synthesizing information on chondrocranial development confronts terminological issues and a lack of comparable methods used (e.g., different staining; whole-mounts versus histology). These issues were taken into consideration when assessing differences across species. The summary of works on avian chondrocranial development, covered more than a century, and a comparison of the chondrification sequence among birds could be conducted. Future studies could test the hypothesis that chondrocranial disparity in Aves, in terms of the shape and proportion of individual elements, could be as large as adult skull disparity, despite conserved developmental patterns and the richness of forms in other (dermal) portions of the skull. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Apteryx is a genus of flightless birds endemic to New Zealand known to lay very large eggs in proportion to body weight. The eggshell of Apteryx is unusually thin and less porous than allometrically expected possibly as a compensation for a very long incubation period. Past studies have been carried out on Apteryx australis, a species which once comprised all kiwi with brown plumage, now separated into three distinct species. These species use different habitats and live at different latitudes and altitudes, therefore generating a need to revise our knowledge of the attributes of their eggshells. In this study, we measured the physical characteristics and water conductance on eggshell fragments of these three species and Great‐spotted Kiwi and relate them to the environmental conditions of their respective environments; we also measured the water vapor conductance of Brown Kiwi eggs of late stages of incubation. We found that several trade‐offs exist between incubation behavior, environmental conditions, and eggshell structure. We found differences between species in eggshell water vapor conductance seemingly related to altitude; Brown Kiwi and Rowi generally inhabiting lower altitudes had the highest conductance and Tokoeka, generally living in montane environments, the lowest. This is achieved by an increased eggshell thickness rather than a pore area reduction. Finally, the water vapor conductance late in incubation was 58% higher than infertile unincubated eggs, suggesting a drastic increase in conductance throughout the long incubation period. Using the values previously reported, we calculated the embryonic eggshell thinning to be 32.5% at the equatorial region of the eggshell. We describe several new features, such as triangular mineral particles in the cuticle, reported for the extinct Trigonoolithus amoei, and confirmed the existence of plugged pores. We suggest that these structures provide microbial protection needed by a burrow nesting species with a long incubation period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maintaining genetic diversity and genetic structure in threatened species is recognised as important, but genetic data are frequently missing from management plans. We use a panel of 11 highly polymorphic microsatellites to describe genetic diversity and genetic structure in the Great Spotted Kiwi/Roroa (Apteryx haastii) (GSK). This flightless bird still occupies the majority of its historical range, but its population has become increasingly fragmented due to human activities. Using the most spatially continuous sample set yet collected for this species, we show that extant GSK exhibit high genetic diversity and clear signals of isolation by distance, where there is a strong correlation between genetic similarity and geographic distance between individuals. This suggests that most GSK do not disperse particularly far (15–20 km) and are most likely to settle and mate with close neighbours, promoting fine-scale genetic structuring and high genetic diversity overall. These findings are important for the management of GSK, as current efforts seek to rebuild depleted populations and restore the species back to its full range prior to human arrival in New Zealand. Our data have already been integrated into the GSK recovery plan, informing policy on translocations and other restoration opportunities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little Spotted Kiwi (LSK; Apteryx owenii) have the lowest genetic diversity of five currently recognised kiwi species apparently due to a bottleneck when at most five individuals were translocated to Kapiti Island in 1912. Ancient DNA analyses show that LSK also had the lowest genetic diversity of kiwi species historically, possibly due to population bottlenecks during Pleistocene glaciation. We compare genetic diversity between LSK from Kapiti Island (extant), D'Urville Island (extinct) and the South Island of mainland New Zealand (extinct) at 495 bp of the mitochondrial control region (mtDNA) and 15 nuclear microsatellite loci (nDNA). Despite higher sample sizes in extant (n = 31 mtDNA, 97 nDNA) than recently extinct (n = 10 mtDNA, 9 nDNA) populations, extant LSK have at least 78% fewer mtDNA haplotypes and 52% fewer microsatellite alleles than recently extinct LSK. Extant LSK were strongly divergent from historical LSK for both mtDNA and nDNA (FST = 0.237 to 0.480), but showed greatest similarity with historical samples from Fiordland near the putative source population of Kapiti founders. Microsatellite data suggest that Kapiti LSK could have arisen from as few as three birds and our mtDNA data show that at least two of the founders were female. Our results indicate that substantial genetic diversity has been lost with the recent extinctions of remnant populations. Locating and protecting any last surviving individuals in presumed extinct populations will require intensive conservation efforts, but could also provide an invaluable source of genetic diversity for the species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Predation by invasive species is a major threat to the persistence of naïve prey. Typically, this negative effect is addressed by suppressing the population size of the invasive predator to a point where the predation pressure does not hinder the viability of the prey. However, this type of intervention may not be effective whenever a few specialised predators are the cause of the decline. We investigated the effects of varying levels of specialised invasive stoats (Mustela erminea) abundance on the long-term viability of simulated kiwi (Apteryx spp.) populations. We explored four scenarios with different proportions of highly specialised stoats, which were those that had a ≥ 0.75 probability of predating kiwi eggs and chicks if they were within their home range: (i) a stoat population composed mostly of generalists (mean: 0.5 probability of predation across the population); (ii) 5% of highly specialised stoats and the remaining being generalists; (iii) 10% of highly specialised stoats and the remaining being generalists; and, (iv) half highly specialised stoats and half generalists. We found that stoat home range sizes, rather than stoat density or the density of highly specialised stoats, was the main driver of kiwi population trends. Stoats with large home ranges were more likely to predate kiwi eggs and chicks as these were more likely to fall within a large home range. More broadly, our findings show how the daily individual ranging and foraging behaviour of an invasive predator can scale-up to shape population trends of naïve prey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Kiwis (Apterygidae) are an enigmatic family of flightless birds endemic to New Zealand. Apterygidae is made up of a single genus, Apteryx with five species, four of which are characterised as at risk of greater by the New Zealand Department of Conservation. These five species are further separated into two morphologically and genetically distinguishable clades, containing A.haastii, and A.owenii in one and A.rowi, A.mantelli, and A.australis in the other. We reconstructed 17 kiwi mitochondrial genomes from previously published genomic data, nine from A.rowi and eight from A.owenii. Mitochondrial diversity analyses uncovered low levels of genetic diversity consistent with their reduced ranges and conservation concern. We further used one of the assembled A.rowi mitochondrial genomes together with mitochondrial genomes from A.haastii, A.owenii, A.mantelli, and several other individuals from Palaeognathae to estimate the within and between clade divergence times of kiwis. Our study exemplifies how available published data can be used in novel ways to provide new and complementary evolutionary insights to previous studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coccidia (Eimeria spp.) in brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) cause significant morbidity and mortality in captive rearing facilities. Monitoring the abundance of this parasite in individual birds is crucial for successful management of kiwi. This research compares the abilities of centrifugal faecal flotations (CFF) and a modified Mini-FLOTAC protocol to detect oocysts. We hypothesised that the Mini-FLOTAC would detect higher oocyst counts. Kiwi dropping samples (n = 10) were homogenized in MgSO4 (SG 1.28) and oocyst counts made with CFFs and Mini-FLOTAC counting chambers, with three replicates for each method. For CFF, 0.5 g of droppings were examined using standard methods. Mini-FLOTAC counts were made using a modified sample preparation compared with the manufacturer's protocol but still used a 1:20 dilution of droppings. Oocysts were quantified using light microscopy at ×100–300 magnification. A linear mixed-effects model by REML showed that oocyst per gram estimates via the Mini-FLOTAC method were 3.2 times higher (95% CI 2.4–4.5, p < 0.01) than the CFF results. This increased detection likely represents a more accurate estimation of parasite shedding and should be considered for use in research or applications requiring more accuracy, cost-effectiveness, or accessibility than the CFF provides. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The suprasellar meningioma (SSM) is definded as a tumor, which originating from tuberculum sella, diaphragma sella, spnenum plenoidale or anterior clinoid processes, and, developing between the two optic nerves, displacing the chiasm backwards and upwards. SSM represents 5-10% of all intracranial meningiomas. The classic syndrome consists of a bitemporal visual field defects and a normal sella in an otherwise healthy middle-aged person. We report a case of SSM in a 43 years old female, suffering from headache and progressive visual deterioration for about three months.Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging revealed a homogeneously enhancing suprasellar lesion with a characteristic beak of a Kiwi bird enhancement along the sphenum plenoidale as a dural tail. She underwent surgical treatment via unilateral pterional approach, achieving complete tumoral resection. Histopathological evaluation revealed WHO grade 1 psammomatous meningioma which is a rare varient for intracranial meningiomas. There was no neurological deficit after surgery. The radiological imaging generally differentiates these tumors from other suprasellar tumors with a high degree of accuracy. The classical MR imaging finding is a homogeneously enhancing suprasellar mass with the characteristic anterior dural enhancement along the planum sphenoidale which resembles the beak of a Kiwi bird. Our case was confirmed histopathologically as a meningioma of psammomatous subtype which is the rarely seen varient in the intracranial region and the most common subtype in the spinal cord. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Kiwi (Aves; genus Apteryx) are famous for laying an enormous egg in comparison with their relatively small body size. Considering the peculiar gait of this flightless bird, we suspected the existence of morpho‐functional trade‐offs between reproduction and locomotion. To understand how structural constraints, imposed by a large egg size, might influence the terrestrial locomotion of Apteryx, we analysed the anatomy of the limb osteomuscular system in two species of kiwi (Apteryx mantelli and Apteryx owenii). We performed detailed dissections and brought to light specific anatomical features of kiwi, in comparison with other ratites and neognathous birds. Our osteological study revealed a strongly curved pelvis, a rigid tail, and enlarged ribs. Our myology study showed an unusual location of the caudofemoralis muscle origin and insertion. The insertion of the pars pelvica along the entire caudal face of the femur, contrasts with the proximal insertion usually seen in other birds. Additionally, the pars caudalis originates along the entire tail, whereas it only inserts on the uropygium in the other birds. To interpret these specificities from a functional point of view, we built three‐dimensional osteomuscular models based on computed tomography scans, radiographies and our dissections. We chose three postures associated with reproductive constraints: the standing position of a gravid compared with a non‐gravid bird, as well as the brooding position. The 3D model of the brooding position suggested that the enlarged ribs could support the bodyweight when leaning on the huge egg in both males and females. Moreover, we found that in gravid females, the unusual shape of the pelvis and tail allowed the huge egg to sit ventrally below the pelvis, whereas it is held closer to the rachis in other birds. The specific conformation of the limb and the insertions of the two parses of the caudofemoralis help to maintain the tail flexed, and to keep the legs adducted when carrying the egg. The caudal location of the hip and its flexed position explains the long stance phase during the strange gait of kiwi, revealing the functional trade‐off between reproduction and locomotion in this emblematic New Zealand bird. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The routine collection of long‐time acoustic recordings of animals in the field presents new challenges in data analysis. While many terabytes of data are collected annually, effective use of this noisy, highly variable data require skilled humans to manually identify calls. While computer programs to automatically analyse these recordings are becoming available, it is important that they are user‐friendly and easy‐to‐use, so that everybody – citizen scientists, wildlife managers, researchers – can take advantage of them, and that they keep the human in the loop so analyses carried out this year are comparable both to manual call counts from the past, and more accurate automated analyses performed in the future.We present the AviaNZ program, which is designed to achieve these goals: the software includes methods for simple, rapid manual annotation of recordings, denoising and segmentation methods, and a training procedure by which the user can prepare their own filters to automatically recognize individual species. The software can run in batch mode, automatically processing folders of field recordings, and then present the outputs to enable the quick and easy review of the results. Finally, the outputs are presented in a variety of spreadsheets to enable different statistical analyses to be performed.We describe the various workflows of manually and semi‐automatically processing sound files, annotating them to train automatic filters, using those filters in batch mode, and how the software facilitates rapid evaluation of the automated analysis. A demonstration of the software, comparing manual and automatic detection of calls of the little spotted kiwi Apteryx owenii is given. It shows that while the automatic detection does produce false positives, human correction of these is far faster than manual review of the whole sound file.AviaNZ is a freely available open‐source standalone program. Our experience shows that it can be used by anybody quickly and easily. However, for experienced users it is easily customizable and extendable. By enabling everybody involved with acoustic bird recording to quickly and easily analyse their own data, while future‐proofing it by keeping the human in the loop, we are enabling acoustic field recordings to meet their potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: To investigate the presence of Campylobacter spp. in captive kiwi (Apteryx spp.) and compare their genotypic profiles with those of human and animal origin, in order to assess their potential for zoonotic or zooanthroponotic transmission. Methods: Conventional selective enrichment and filter-based isolation methods were applied to isolate Campylobacter spp. from fresh faecal samples from 12 North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) and one great spotted kiwi (A. haastii), housed in one of five different areas in a kiwi sanctuary in Christchurch, New Zealand. Isolates were identified using multiplex PCR and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. High-resolution rapid genotyping using multiplex ligation-dependant probe amplification-based binary typing (MBiT) was applied and profiles compared with similar results from 2,165 Campylobacter spp. isolates contained in a database derived from human clinical, veterinary and environmental samples. Results: One isolate of C. jejuni, and one belonging to the C. lari phylogenetic group were recovered from faeces from two kiwi. High-resolution rapid genotyping by MBiT demonstrated these to be indistinguishable from isolates obtained previously from human cases of diarrhoea, and others from chicken, cattle, sheep and water. Conclusions: These data provide evidence for potential zoonotic or zooanthroponotic transmission of Campylobacter spp. in kiwi with implications for management of birds kept in captivity. We believe this is the first formal report of C. jejuni and a C. lari-like organism in kiwi. Abbreviations: MBiT: Multiplex ligation-dependant probe amplification-based binary typing [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our knowledge of diseases in New Zealand wildlife has expanded rapidly in the last two decades. Much of this is due to a greater awareness of disease as a cause of mortality in some of our highly threatened species or as a limiting factor to the successful captive rearing of intensely managed species such as hihi (Notiomystis cincta), kiwi (Apteryx spp.) and kakapo (Strigops habroptilus). An important factor contributing to the increase of our knowledge has been the development of new diagnostic techniques in the fields of molecular biology and immunohistochemistry, particularly for the diagnosis and epidemiology of viral and protozoan diseases. Although New Zealand remains free of serious exotic viruses there has been much work on understanding the taxonomy and epidemiology of local strains of avipox virus and circoviruses. Bacterial diseases such as salmonellosis, erysipelas and tuberculosis have also been closely investigated in wildlife and opportunist mycotic infections such as aspergillosis remain a major problem in many species. Nutritional diseases such as hyperplastic goitre due to iodine deficiency and metabolic bone disease due to Ca:P imbalance have made significant impacts on some captive reared birds, while lead poisoning is a problem in some localities. The increasing use of wildlife translocations to avoid the extinction of threatened species has highlighted the need for improved methods to assess the disease risks inherent in these operations and other intensive conservation management strategies such as creching young animals. We have also become more aware of the likelihood of inbreeding suppression as populations of many species decrease or pass through a genetic bottleneck. Climate change and habitat loss, however, remain the greatest threats to biodiversity and wildlife health worldwide. Temperature changes will affect our wildlife habitats, alter the distribution of disease vectors and wildlife predators, or directly harm threatened species in vulnerable localities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Captive rearing of wild brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) is widely carried out to assist in the recovery of this declining species. As a consequence, high densities of immunologically naïve kiwi are commonly housed in semi-captive conditions, with the potential to result in substantial morbidity and mortality from coccidiosis caused by multiple species of Eimeria. Previous research has described circadian variation in oocyst shedding across multiple avian host species. The aim of this research was to describe any circadian variation in oocyst shedding in brown kiwi. Droppings were collected from brown kiwi (n = 4) at a single captive rearing facility using video surveillance to determine the time of excretion, and oocyst counts were undertaken. Results show that two of the Eimeria spp. affecting brown kiwi exhibit a peak in oocyst shedding between 03.00 and 07.00 with few or no oocysts shed between 08.00 and midnight. These results are not able to be explained by the current hypotheses theorising the evolutionary forces behind the development of this adaptive trait. Our findings increase the current understanding of the biology of the Eimeria spp. affecting brown kiwi and have important implications for the management of captive-reared kiwi, in particular for the accurate interpretation of faecal oocyst counts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Female birds produce medullary bone to offset heightened calcium demand during egg shelling. The ephemeral nature of medullary bone hampers its observation in wild birds; thus, its phylogenetic distribution and ecophysiological correlates remain controversial. To address this, I candled a phylogenetically broad sample of bird skeletons spanning a large range of body sizes. I hypothesized that the presence of medullary bone would reduce or eliminate light penetrance through long bones. Candling suggested medullary bone was present in many adult female specimens, which was confirmed visually or with digital X-rays. This survey yielded the first unambiguous evidence of medullary bone in several taxa, including hummingbirds, tinamous, megapodes, and kiwi. The phylogenetic distribution of these new occurrences confirms that medullary bone is phylogenetically widespread among birds, including palaeognaths and passerines. The rapid assessment of complete skeletons supports a relationship between medullary bone and hematopoietic marrow, and establishes that the skeletal distribution of medullary bone varies taxonomically. Because the presence of medullary bone confirms sex, maturity, and reproductive status, its detection in specimens of known collection date can improve our understanding of life history and reproductive timing in wild birds, even decades later. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although some taxa are increasing in number due to active management and predator control, the overall number of kiwi (Apteryx spp.) is declining. Kiwi are cryptic and rare, meaning current monitoring tools, such as call counts, radio telemetry, and surveys using detection dogs are labor-intensive, yield small datasets, and require substantial resources or provide inaccurate estimates of population sizes. A noninvasive genetic approach could help the conservation effort. We optimized a panel of 23 genetic markers (22 autosomal microsatellite loci and an allosomal marker) to discriminate between all species of kiwi and major lineages within species, while simultaneously determining sex. Markers successfully amplified from both fecal and shed feather DNA samples collected in captivity. We found that DNA extraction was more efficient from shed feathers, but DNA quality was greater with feces, although this was sampling dependent. Our microsatellite panel was able to distinguish between contemporary kiwi populations and lineages and provided PI values in the range of 4.3 × 10-5 to 2.0 × 10-19, which in some cases were sufficient for individualization and mark-recapture studies. As such, we have tested a wide-reaching, noninvasive molecular approach that will improve conservation management by providing better parameter estimates associated with population ecology and demographics such as abundance, growth rates, and genetic diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ixodes anatis Chilton is of veterinary and conservation importance in New Zealand due to its association with the threatened kiwi (Aves: Apterygidae: Apteryx spp.). Since the tick’s description in 1904, there has been debate regarding its correct taxonomic position and nomenclature. Herein all life stages of this species are redescribed and accompanied by electron micrographs and drawings. The systematics, host preferences, distribution, disease relationships and conservation biology of the species are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carotenoids have important roles in bird behavior, including pigmentation for sexual signaling and improving color vision via retinal oil droplets. Yellow carotenoids are diet-derived, but red carotenoids (ketocarotenoids) are typically synthesized from yellow precursors via a carotenoid ketolase. Recent research on passerines has provided evidence that a cytochrome p450 enzyme, CYP2J19, is responsible for this reaction, though it is unclear if this function is phylogenetically restricted. Here I provide evidence that CYP2J19 is the carotenoid ketolase common to Aves using the genomes of 65 birds and the retinal transcriptomes of 15 avian taxa. CYP2J19 is functionally intact and robustly transcribed in all taxa except for several species adapted to foraging in dim light conditions. Two penguins, an owl and a kiwi show evidence of genetic lesions and relaxed selection in their genomic copy of CYP2J19 , and six owls show evidence of marked reduction in CYP2J19 retinal transcription compared to nine diurnal avian taxa. Furthermore, one of the owls appears to transcribe a CYP2J19 pseudogene. Notably, none of these taxa are known to use red carotenoids for sexual signaling and several species of owls and penguins represent the only birds known to completely lack red retinal oil droplets. The remaining avian taxa belong to groups known to possess red oil droplets, are known or expected to deposit red carotenoids in skin and/or plumage, and/or frequently forage in bright light. The loss and reduced expression of CYP2J19 is likely an adaptation to maximize retinal sensitivity, given that oil droplets reduce the amount of light available to the retina. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]