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Purpose: The ultimate goal of anomia treatment should be to achieve gains in exemplars trained in the therapy session, as well as generalization to untrained exemplars and contexts. The purpose of this study was to test the efficacy of phonomotor treatment, a treatment focusing on enhancement of phonological sequence knowledge, against semantic feature analysis (SFA), a lexical-semantic therapy that focuses on enhancement of semantic knowledge and is well known and commonly used to treat anomia in aphasia. Method: In a between-groups randomized controlled trial, 58 persons with aphasia characterized by anomia and phonological dysfunction were randomized to receive 56-60 hr of intensively delivered treatment over 6 weeks with testing pretreatment, posttreatment, and 3 months posttreatment termination. Results: There was no significant between-groups difference on the primary outcome measure (untrained nouns phonologically and semantically unrelated to each treatment) at 3 months posttreatment. Significant within-group immediately posttreatment acquisition effects for confrontation naming and response latency were observed for both groups. Treatment-specific generalization effects for confrontation naming were observed for both groups immediately and 3 months posttreatment; a significant decrease in response latency was observed at both time points for the SFA group only. Finally, significant within-group differences on the Comprehensive Aphasia Test--Disability Questionnaire (Swinburn, Porter, & Howard, 2004) were observed both immediately and 3 months posttreatment for the SFA group, and significant within-group differences on the Functional Outcome Questionnaire (Glueckauf et al., 2003) were found for both treatment groups 3 months posttreatment. Discussion: Our results are consistent with those of prior studies that have shown that SFA treatment and phonomotor treatment generalize to untrained words that share features (semantic or phonological sequence, respectively) with the training set. However, they show that there is no significant generalization to untrained words that do not share semantic features or phonological sequence features.

Purpose: An increasing number of anomia treatment studies have coupled traditional word retrieval accuracy outcome measures with more fine-grained analysis of word retrieval errors to allow for more comprehensive measurement of treatment-induced changes in word retrieval. The aim of this study was to examine changes in picture naming errors after phonomotor treatment. Method: Twenty-eight individuals with aphasia received 60 hr of phonomotor treatment, an intensive, phoneme-based therapy for anomia. Confrontation naming was assessed pretreatment, immediately posttreatment, and 3 months posttreatment for trained and untrained nouns. Responses were scored for accuracy and coded for error type, and error proportions of each error type (e.g., semantic, phonological, omission) were compared: pre- versus posttreatment and pretreatment versus 3 months posttreatment. Results: The group of treatment participants improved in whole-word naming accuracy on trained items and maintained their improvement. Treatment effects also generalized to untrained nouns at the maintenance testing phase. Additionally, participants demonstrated a decrease in proportions of omission and description errors on trained items immediately posttreatment. Conclusions: Along with generalized improved whole-word naming accuracy, results of the error analysis suggest that a global (i.e., both lexical-semantic and phonological) change in lexical knowledge underlies the observed changes in confrontation naming accuracy following phonomotor treatment.

Purpose: Living with the communication impairment of aphasia can be stressful. Chronic stress, depression, and anxiety are intimately linked, may be more pervasive in people with poststroke aphasia than the general population, and may influence cognitive function and treatment outcomes. In this project, we explored the psychological constructs of depression and anxiety and their associations with a biomarker measure of chronic stress in people with aphasia. Method: Fifty-seven participants with aphasia completed measures of depression and anxiety and provided a hair sample from which to extract the stress hormone cortisol. Pearson product--moment correlational analyses were used to identify associations between depression, anxiety, and long-term level of cortisol via hair sample. Conclusions: Chronic stress, depression, and anxiety have been little explored in people with aphasia to date, yet they are associated with future health consequences and impaired cognitive function, motivating further research as well as consideration of these factors in aphasia rehabilitation. Results: While cortisol level was not associated with depression and anxiety across this sample of people with aphasia, a post hoc analysis showed a significant, positive correlation between a subset of participants with moderate and higher levels of depression and elevated cortisol level.

Purpose: Chronic stress is likely a common experience among people with the language impairment of aphasia. Importantly, chronic stress reportedly alters the neural networks central to learning and memory--essential ingredients of aphasia rehabilitation. Before we can explore the influence of chronic stress on rehabilitation outcomes, we must be able to measure chronic stress in this population. The purpose of this study was to (a) modify a widely used measure of chronic stress (Perceived Stress Scale [PSS]; Cohen & Janicki-Deverts, 2012) to fit the communication needs of people with aphasia (PWA) and (b) validate the modified PSS (mPSS) with PWA. Method: Following systematic modification of the PSS (with permission), 72 PWA completed the validation portion of the study. Each participant completed the mPSS, measures of depression, anxiety, and resilience, and provided a sample of the stress hormone cortisol extracted from the hair. Pearson's product-moment correlations were used to examine associations between mPSS scores and these measures. Approximately 30% of participants completed the mPSS 1 week later to establish test-retest reliability, analyzed using an interclass correlation coefficient. Results: Significant positive correlations were evident between the reports of chronic stress and depression and anxiety. In addition, a significant inverse correlation was found between reports of chronic stress and resilience. The mPSS also showed evidence of test-retest reliability. No association was found between mPSS score and cortisol level. Conclusion: Although questions remain about the biological correlates of chronic stress in people with poststroke aphasia, significant associations between chronic stress and several psychosocial variables provide evidence of validity of this emerging measure of chronic stress.

Purpose: This study investigated the relationship between non-orthographic language abilities and reading in order to examine assumptions of the primary systems hypothesis and further our understanding of language processing poststroke. Method: Performance on non-orthographic semantic, phonologic, and syntactic tasks, as well as oral reading and reading comprehension tasks, was assessed in 43 individuals with aphasia. Correlation and regression analyses were conducted to determine the relationship between these measures. In addition, analyses of variance examined differences within and between reading groups (within normal limits, phonological, deep, or global alexia). Results: Results showed that non-orthographic language abilities were significantly related to reading abilities. Semantics was most predictive of regular and irregular word reading, whereas phonology was most predictive of pseudohomophone and nonword reading. Written word and paragraph comprehension were primarily supported by semantics, whereas written sentence comprehension was related to semantic, phonologic, and syntactic performance. Finally, severity of alexia was found to reflect severity of semantic and phonologic impairment. Conclusions: Findings support the primary systems view of language by showing that non-orthographic language abilities and reading abilities are closely linked. This preliminary work requires replication and extension; however, current results highlight the importance of routine, integrated assessment and treatment of spoken and written language in aphasia.

Purpose: This study investigated the relationship between non-orthographic language abilities and reading in order to examine assumptions of the primary systems hypothesis and further our understanding of language processing poststroke.Method: Performance on non-orthographic semantic, phonologic, and syntactic tasks, as well as oral reading and reading comprehension tasks, was assessed in 43 individuals with aphasia. Correlation and regression analyses were conducted to determine the relationship between these measures. In addition, analyses of variance examined differences within and between reading groups (within normal limits, phonological, deep, or global alexia).Results: Results showed that non-orthographic language abilities were significantly related to reading abilities. Semantics was most predictive of regular and irregular word reading, whereas phonology was most predictive of pseudohomophone and nonword reading. Written word and paragraph comprehension were primarily supported by semantics, whereas written sentence comprehension was related to semantic, phonologic, and syntactic performance. Finally, severity of alexia was found to reflect severity of semantic and phonologic impairment.Conclusions: Findings support the primary systems view of language by showing that non-orthographic language abilities and reading abilities are closely linked. This preliminary work requires replication and extension; however, current results highlight the importance of routine, integrated assessment and treatment of spoken and written language in aphasia.Supplemental Material: https://doi.org/10.23641/asha. 7403963, Aphasia, an acquired difficulty with language processing, results from damage to the language-dominant hemisphere of the brain, most commonly following left-hemisphere stroke. Although aphasia is not a uniform disorder, people [...]

The phonomotor treatment program for treating word-retrieval deficits among people with aphasia is inspired by a parallel distributed processing model of lexical processing and is focused at the level of individual phonemes and phoneme sequences. Because verbal production of words involves the translation of a lexical-semantic representation into phonological representations, training the repertoire of phonological sequences should enable individuals with anomia to regain the ability to learn words and sequences, generalize to linguistic items not trained, and continue growth following treatment termination. The development and refinement of the phonomotor treatment program, which began in 2000, have followed the 5-phase model for communication disorders and sciences framework outlined by R. Robey (2004). To date, there have been 8 published articles on the phonomotor treatment program. A large-scale randomized trial comparing phonomotor with standard of care for word-retrieval deficits is underway. The goal of this article is to review the theoretical framework, treatment procedures, current evidence, and future directions of the phonomotor protocol.

Purpose: The integrity of selective attention in people with aphasia (PWA) is currently unknown. Selective attention is essential for everyday communication, and inhibition is an important part of selective attention. This study explored components of inhibition--both intentional and reactive inhibition--during spoken-word production in PWA and in controls who were neurologically healthy (HC). Intentional inhibition is the ability to suppress a response to interference, and reactive inhibition is the delayed reactivation of a previously suppressed item. Method: Nineteen PWA and 20 age- and education-matched HC participated in a Stroop spoken-word production task. This task allowed the examination of intentional and reactive inhibition by evoking and comparing interference, facilitation, and negative priming effects in different contexts. Results: Although both groups demonstrated intentional inhibition, PWA demonstrated significantly more interference effects. PWA demonstrated no significant facilitation effects. HC demonstrated significant reverse facilitation effects. Neither group showed significant evidence of reactive inhibition, though both groups showed similar individual variability. Conclusions: These results underscore the challenge interference presents for PWA during spoken-word production, indicating diminished intentional inhibition. Although reactive inhibition was not different between PWA and HC, PWA showed difficulty integrating and adapting to contextual information during language tasks.

Purpose: The ultimate goal of aphasia therapy should be to achieve gains in function that generalize to untrained exemplars and daily conversation. Anomia is one of the most disabling features of aphasia. The predominantly lexical/semantic approaches used to treat anomia have low potential for generalization due to the orthogonality of semantic and phonologic representations; this has been borne out in a meta-analysis of treatment studies. The intensive, neurally distributed, phonologic therapy reported here can, in principle, generalize to untrained phonologic sequences because of extant regularities in phonologic sequence knowledge and should, in principle, generalize to production of words trained as well as those untrained. Method: Twenty-six persons with chronic aphasia due to stroke were treated, in a staggered (immediate vs. delayed treatment) open trial design, with 60 hr of intensive, multimodal therapy designed to enhance access to and efficiency of phonemes and phonologic sequences. Results: There was an absolute increase of 5% in confrontation naming of "untrained" nouns at 3 months, and there were 9% to 10% increases on measures of generalization of phonologic processes. Conclusion: The results of this trial demonstrate generalization of training effects on laboratory measures, which were sustained at 3 months, and provide support for the theories that motivated the treatment.

Purpose: Studies investigating language deficits in individuals with left temporal-lobe epilepsy have consistently demonstrated impairments in proper name retrieval. The aim of this Phase I rehabilitation study was to investigate the effects of a linguistically distributed word retrieval treatment on proper name retrieval in an individual with left temporal-lobe epilepsy. Method: A 61-year old right-handed male with left temporal-lobe epilepsy (clinical onset at the age of 50) and a deficit in proper name retrieval participated in this study. A single-subject, repeated-probe ABAA design with testing before, immediately after, and 3 months after treatment completion was employed. Proper name retrieval treatment was administered 2 hr per day for 5 days. Results: Results demonstrated improved naming on trained items and maintenance of trained items 3 months after treatment completion. Conclusion: Treatment, which took advantage of the individual's undamaged linguistic networks, promoted the reorganization of networks supporting proper naming, leading to improved proper name retrieval. Further research replicating these findings in individuals with varying degrees of proper name retrieval impairment is warranted. Additionally, the mechanism behind the observed improvements in proper name retrieval needs to be investigated further using functional neuroimaging. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)

Purpose: The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of phonomotor treatment on the types of errors produced during a confrontation naming task for people with aphasia (PWA). Method: Ten PWA received 60 hr of phonomotor treatment across 6 weeks. Confrontation naming abilities were measured before and after treatment, and responses were coded as correct or incorrect. Incorrect responses were coded for error type. Paired t tests comparing pre-, post- and 3 months posttreatment naming accuracy and error type were performed. Results: Group data showed that naming accuracy on trained items improved significantly immediately post treatment, and gains were maintained 3 months later. Naming accuracy on untrained items did not show significant improvement immediately post treatment or 3 months later. Results of error type analysis were not significant. However, a decrease in omission errors and an increase in mixed errors were noted immediately post treatment for naming of untrained items. Conclusion: Results suggest that intensive phonomotor treatment improved lexical-retrieval abilities and may have triggered a shift in linguistic processing, as indicated by a decrease in omission errors on trained items and an increase in mixed errors on untrained items. (Contains 1 table and 3 figures.)

Background: The term "speech usage" refers to what people want or need to do with their speech to fulfil the communication demands in their life roles. Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) need to know about clients' speech usage to plan appropriate interventions to meet their life participation goals. The Levels of Speech Usage is a categorical scale intended for client self-report of speech usage, but SLPs may want the option to use it as a proxy-report tool. The relationship between self-report and clinician ratings should be examined before the instrument is used in a proxy format. Aims: The primary purpose of this study was to compare client self-ratings with SLP ratings on the Levels of Speech Usage scale. The secondary purpose was to determine if the SLP ratings differed depending on whether or not the SLPs knew about the clients' medical condition. Methods & Procedures: Self-ratings of adults with communication disorders on the Levels of Speech Usage scale were available from prior research. Vignettes about these individuals were created from existing data. Two sets of vignettes were created. One set contained information about demographic information, living situation, occupational status and hobbies or social activities. The second set was identical to the first with the addition of information about the clients' medical conditions and communication disorders. Various communication disorders were represented including dysarthria, voice disorders, laryngectomy, and mild cognitive and language disorders. Sixty SLPs were randomly divided into two groups with each group rating one set of vignettes. The task was completed online. While this does not replicate typical in-person clinical interactions, it was a feasible method for this study. For data analysis, the client self-ratings were considered fixed points and the percentage of SLP ratings in agreement with the self-ratings was calculated. Outcomes & Results: The percentage of SLP ratings in exact agreement with client self-ratings was 44.9%. Agreement was lowest for the less-demanding speech usage categories and highest for the most demanding usage category. There was no significant difference between the two groups of SLPs based on knowledge of medical condition. Conclusions & Implications: SLPs often need to document the speech usage levels of clients. This study suggests the potential for SLPs to misjudge how clients see their own speech demands. Further research is needed to determine if similar results would be found in actual clinical interactions. Until then, SLPs should seek the input of their clients when using this instrument. (Contains 2 tables and 2 figures.)

Purpose: Individuals with probable Alzheimer disease (pAD) are frequently impaired at picture naming. This study examined whether a semantic elaboration task would facilitate naming in pAD, and whether training either semantically typical or atypical stimulus items facilitated generalized improvement in picture naming and category generation tasks. Methods: Twelve adults with mild-moderate pAD participated in the study. Participants performed an experimental semantic elaboration training task using a subset of typical items from one category and atypical items from another category. The third category, acted as a control (i.e., no items were trained). The study assessed change in category generation and a picture naming within the three target categories. Results: Individuals showed significantly improved category generation and naming, but changes were not limited to trained categories. Naming of trained atypical items improved significantly. Participants showed significantly improved naming of untrained typical items from categories trained with typical items. Conclusions: Semantic elaboration of typical items within a semantic category can lead to generalized improvement in other typical items in the category in mild-moderate pAD. This is consistent with theories postulating that typical category items share overlapping distributed representations. Further exploration of the effects of semantic elaboration on word-finding in pAD is warranted, especially the possibility of within-category generalization. Learning outcomes: After reading this article, the reader will be able to: (1) explain how word-finding is affected by probable Alzheimer disease; (2) identify ways word finding is usually assessed in Alzheimer's disease; (3) describe the effects of training typical versus atypical items from a category in people with aphasia; and (4) describe the effects of training people with Alzheimer's disease on typical versus atypical items from a category. (Contains 4 tables and 1 figure.)

Purpose: To provide preliminary evidence of the construct validity of the Communicative Effectiveness Survey (CES) for individuals with dysarthria and idiopathic Parkinson's disease (PD). Method: In a prospective, quasi-experimental design, 25 participants each were assigned to 3 groups (N = 75): PD and dysarthria, non-PD and no dysarthria, and PD significant others (SOs). Mean CES ratings were used to test for significant differences between the PD and non-PD group, and PD and SO rating of PD's communicative effectiveness. Multiple linear regression tested for significant predictors of CES ratings for PD group only using sentence intelligibility and spontaneous speech intelligibility scores as predictor variables. Results: The PD group rated their CES significantly lower than did the non-PD group. The PD group rated their CES significantly higher than their SOs rated them. Neither speech intelligibility score was a significant predictor of CES ratings. In follow-up analysis, the Hoehn and Yahr PD staging accounted for 47% of the variability in CES ratings for the PD group participants. Conclusions: This study provides preliminary evidence of the CES's construct validity. Clinicians and researchers who assess and treat individuals with PD may consider adding an additional assessment to the traditional clinical measures (i.e., speech intelligibility) by obtaining a measure of communicative effectiveness. (Contains 5 tables and 1 figure.)

This study investigated the effects of phonologic treatment for anomia in aphasia. We proposed that if treatment were directed at the level of the phonologic processor, opportunities for naming via a phonological route, as opposed to a strictly whole word route, would be enhanced, thereby improving naming. The participants, ten people with anomia and aphasia due to left hemisphere stroke, received 96 h of phoneme based treatment in 12 weeks. To learn if treatment improved naming, a single-subject, repeated probe design with replication was employed. The primary outcome measure was confrontation naming. Secondary outcome measures included phonologic production, nonword repetition and discourse production. Results suggest a positive treatment effect (confrontation naming), improvements in phonologic production and nonword repetition, and generalization to discourse production. When tested 3 months after the completion of treatment the effects appeared to be maintained.

Purpose: In this article, the authors encapsulate discussions of the Language Work Group that took place as part of the Workshop in Plasticity/NeuroRehabilitation Research at the University of Florida in April 2005. Method: In this narrative review, they define neuroplasticity and review studies that demonstrate neural changes associated with aphasia recovery and treatment. The authors then summarize basic science evidence from animals, human cognition, and computational neuroscience that is relevant to aphasia treatment research. They then turn to the aphasia treatment literature in which evidence exists to support several of the neuroscience principles. Conclusion: Despite the extant aphasia treatment literature, many questions remain regarding how neuroscience principles can be manipulated to maximize aphasia recovery and treatment. They propose a framework, incorporating some of these principles, that may serve as a potential roadmap for future investigations of aphasia treatment and recovery. In addition to translational investigations from basic to clinical science, the authors propose several areas in which translation can occur from clinical to basic science to contribute to the fundamental knowledge base of neurorehabilitation. This article is intended to reinvigorate interest in delineating the factors influencing successful recovery from aphasia through basic, translational, and clinical research.

This study tested the hypotheses that people had a bias for drawing agents on the left of a picture when given a verb stimulus targeting an active or passive event (e.g., "kicked" or "is kicked") and that orthographic directionality would influence the way events were illustrated. Monolingual English speakers, who read and write left-to-right, and Arabic speakers, who read and write right-to-left, drew agents and patients in response to verb stimuli. We found no significant orthographic directionality effects and no preference for positioning agents on the left of pictures in either group or sentence type. Instead, participants drew agents on the right regardless of language or sentence type, and this was exaggerated in English speakers illustrating passive verbs. These findings support the existence of a preference for placing agents in the right hemispace that may result from asymmetrical hemispheric (i.e., left greater than right) activation induced by language processing. Our results are consistent with findings that people prefer pictures in which focus is on the right, a preference strongest in pictures with no implicit directionality of movement. This suggests that the methodology of the current study encouraged a static rather than dynamic interpretation of the verb in most participants.

This epilogue discusses potentials in future clinical decision-making using the emerging functional neuroimaging technology, including identification of the mechanisms underlying cognitive functions and prediction of spared/impaired cognitive functions, those related to recovery of function and prediction of treatment candidacy; and those related to treatment action and prediction of treatment selection. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to develop a short form of the Boston Naming Test (BNT; Kaplan, Goodglass, & Weintraub, 2001) for individuals with aphasia and compare it with 2 existing short forms originally analyzed with responses from people with dementia and neurologically healthy adults. Method: Development of the new BNT-Aphasia Short Form and analysis of the other 2 forms were completed with archival data from 100 individuals with aphasia. The authors developed the BNT-Aphasia Short Form using items from the original 60-item instrument based on item response theory. Rasch analysis was computed on the short forms developed by Graves, Bezeau, Fogarty, and Blair (2004) and by Mack, Freed, Williams, and Henderson (1992). Results: Analysis of the Graves et al. (2004) short form resulted in the smallest range of item difficulty and the largest floor effect compared with the Mack et al. (1992) short form and the BNT-Aphasia short form. The BNT-Aphasia Short Form showed an increase in information in the middle of the scale relative to both the Graves et al. and the Mack et al. forms. Conclusions: The new short form demonstrates good psychometric properties when used with individuals with aphasia. However, the Mack et al. form proved to be as psychometrically sound as the BNT-Aphasia Short Form and is also appropriate for individuals with aphasia. Key Words: Boston Naming Test, Aphasia, Anomia, Rasch, IRT, The Boston Naming Test (BNT; Kaplan, Goodglass, & Weintraub, 2001) is a commonly used assessment for individuals with aphasia. In particular, the BNT assesses the ability to name pictures of [...]

Background. Up to 65% of individuals demonstrate poststroke cognitive impairments, which may increase hospital stay and caregiver burden. Randomized stroke clinical trials have emphasized physical recovery over cognition. Neuropsychological assessments [...]

Stimulus selection is important to anomia treatment because similarity between trained and untrained words in the mental lexicon may influence treatment generalization. We focused on phonological similarity between trained and untrained words from a clinical trial of Phonomotor Treatment (PMT) that showed gains in confrontation naming accuracy of untrained words post-treatment. One way to capture the amount of similarity between the trained and untrained words is to consider the phonological network path distance between words. We posited that the distance between trained and untrained words in a phonological network could account for the improvement in confrontation naming accuracy post-treatment. To define the phonological network distance between trained and untrained words that influences change in confrontation naming accuracy post-treatment. We retrospectively analyzed data from 28 people with aphasia who received PMT as part of a clinical trial. Participants completed confrontation naming (baseline, post-treatment, and 3-months post-treatment) of words varying in phonological distance to the treatment stimuli. We used a phonological network to calculate the average shortest path length (ASPL), defined by the number of phoneme differences, between an untrained word and all trained words. We used mixed effects regression models to predict change in confrontation naming accuracy of untrained words post-treatment from ASPL. Several post-hoc analyses were also conducted. We found no effect of ASPL on change in confrontation naming accuracy of untrained words immediately post- and 3-months post-treatment. However, post-hoc analyses indicated significant subject heterogeneity and limitations in observable path distance between trained and untrained words. Despite the clinical trial report that confrontation naming of untrained words improved after PMT, we found no overall effect of ASPL on the amount of improvement. We discuss further investigation of the entire domain of phonological sequence knowledge (the phonological sequence knowledge landscape) and its influence on treatment generalization, and the potential importance of identifying predictors of treatment response to enhance the effects of treatment generalization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Generalization of treatment effects is the ultimate goal of therapy. However, treatment generalization across language modalities is not well understood in the aphasia literature and requires further investigation. This work examined the generalization effects of two word retrieval therapies, Phonomotor Treatment (PMT) and Semantic Feature Analysis (SFA), to reading performance in individuals with aphasia. Aims: This cross-modal generalization investigation was motivated by the Primary Systems Hypothesis, which proposes reading ability is related to and dependent upon underlying phonological and semantic abilities. Therefore, this study sought to determine if enhanced phonological or semantic knowledge following anomia treatment could influence reading ability. Methods & Procedures: Reading data collected in a randomized control trial for anomia treatment were retrospectively analyzed. Fifty-eight participants with chronic aphasia were randomly assigned to receive intensive PMT (n = 28) or SFA (n = 30) treatment for 56–60 hours over 6–7 weeks. Reading measures were administered pre-, post- and 3 months after treatment. To identify and compare the extent of treatment generalization to reading, within-group and between-group analyses of variance were performed. Outcomes & Results: On average, participants in both groups showed positive changes in reading. The PMT group demonstrated significantly improved reading of regularly and irregularly spelled words. The SFA group showed significant gains in reading of regularly spelled words and sentence-level reading comprehension. No statistically significant differences in oral reading or reading comprehension were found between the groups before or after therapy. Conclusions: These preliminary findings support the Primary Systems Hypothesis and suggest a link between reading ability and phonological and semantic abilities. Results show that one anomia treatment was not superior to the other and the positive influence of both PMT and SFA suggests that reading might be enhanced via intensively delivered treatments that focus on the underlying phonological or semantic impairment. Further investigations of cross-modal treatment generalization are needed to help better understand this relationship between word retrieval and reading and its implication for aphasia treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents a learning activity in which secondary students read about and analyze the legal institutions of an African tribe called the Ibo. Students compare the Ibo's precolonial system of resolving disputes with the U.S. system. (AM)

Describes a lesson for use in U.S. or world history courses to help secondary students understand how common human concerns and problems have been reflected in codes of law that have been created over time. Students read about and compare the Code of Hammurabi, Mosaic Law, and Roman Law. (AM)