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Due to their mutualistic relationship with plant pests, the Argentine ant is considered a major pest in subtropical fruit orchards and vineyards. Besides insecticide sprays, liquid baiting has been demonstrated as an effective method to suppress the Argentine ant populations. To improve the economic feasibility of liquid baiting, hydrogel materials have been recently tested as a carrier for liquid baits containing various insecticidal active ingredients. Here, we tested boric acid as a toxicant in the aqueous sugar bait delivered in a biodegradable calcium alginate hydrogel. Laboratory tests demonstrated that boric acid (1%) liquid bait incorporated in the calcium alginate hydrogel effectively killed Argentine ant workers. Potassium sorbate (0.25%) added to the liquid bait as a preservative did not impact the efficacy of boric acid even though it significantly reduced the degree of swelling of the hydrogel beads in the bait solution. Testing with 2-month-old bait suggested that long-term storage might impact bait efficacy even with potassium sorbate preservative.

New infestations of the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki (Blattodea: Rhinotermitidae), were discovered in southern California, namely in Rancho Santa Fe and La Mesa (San Diego County) and Highland Park (Los Angeles County) in 2021. We investigated whether these new infestations were related to the previous infestations in La Mesa (2018) and Canyon Lake, Riverside County (2020). We used two mitochondrial genes (COI and COII) and seven polymorphic microsatellite markers to infer the genetic relationship between southern California colonies and their breeding systems. The samples collected from seven localities belonged to five colonies (inter-colony distances ranged from ~160 m to 185 km, with an average of 97 km). Of these five colonies, two were simple families, and three were extended families. Structure analyses of microsatellite genotypes grouped the termite samples into three distinct genetic clusters, suggesting at least three independent introduction events in southern California.

Argentine ants are one of the most common nuisance pest ants treated by pest management professionals (PMPs) in southern and western urban residential areas of the United States. Two new technologies (spraying with a pheromone adjuvant and using a biodegradable hydrogel bait delivery method) were used to develop a unique low-impact integrated pest management (IPM) protocol for Argentine ants in urban residential settings. The IPM protocol included a one-time perimeter spray treatment with 0.03% fipronil (mixed with a pheromone adjuvant) at the beginning of the ant season to achieve a quick knockdown. The initial spray application was followed by a biodegradable hydrogel baiting with 1% boric acid as a maintenance treatment. This low-impact IPM protocol was compared with two other conventional methods: (1) one initial fipronil application and one pyrethroid spray application for maintenance, or (2) one initial fipronil application and one essential oil insecticide spray application for maintenance. Based on Argentine ant foraging activity, the protocols were compared for their control efficacy. Insecticide use information and treatment time were also recorded and compared among different treatment protocols. Our results provided empirical data to support the effectiveness and economic feasibility of the low-impact IPM protocol for managing Argentine ants in urban residential settings.

Despite insecticide resistance issues, pyrethroids and fipronil have continued to be used extensively to control the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.) (Blattodea: Ectobiidae) for more than two decades. We evaluated the physiological insecticide resistance in five German cockroach populations collected from 2018 to 2020 and measured the extent of metabolic detoxification and target-site insensitivity resistance mechanisms. Topically applied doses of the 3 x LD

The ability to obtain single cell transcriptomes for stable cell types and dynamic cell states is ushering in a new era for biology. We created the Tabula Drosophilae, a single cell atlas of the adult fruit fly which includes 580k cells from 15 individually dissected sexed tissues as well as the entire head and body. Over 100 researchers from the fly community contributed annotations to >250 distinct cell types across all tissues. We provide an in-depth analysis of cell type-related gene signatures and transcription factor markers, as well as sexual dimorphism, across the whole animal. Analysis of common cell types that are shared between tissues, such as blood and muscle cells, allowed the discovery of rare cell types and tissue-specific subtypes. This atlas provides a valuable resource for the entire Drosophila community and serves as a comprehensive reference to study genetic perturbations and disease models at single cell resolution.

Gel bait insecticides have been extensively used to manage the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.) (Blattodea: Ectobiidae), but issues with reduced effectiveness of such formulations are becoming increasingly common. We collected five field strains of German cockroaches in California and evaluated them against five commercial bait products [Maxforce FC Magnum (0.05% fipronil), Maxforce Impact (1% clothianidin), Advion Evolution (0.6% indoxacarb), Optigard (0.1% emamectin benzoate) and Siege (2% hydramethylnon)]. Increased survivorship and incomplete mortality towards all baits were recorded in the field strains. We assessed susceptibility to the active ingredients fipronil, clothianidin, indoxacarb, abamectin, hydramethylnon, and deltamethrin using topical bioassays with diagnostic doses (3 × LD95 and 10 × LD95) developed from the UCR susceptible strain. Low mortality was registered when tested with the 3 × LD95’s of deltamethrin (0%), fipronil (0–3%), and clothianidin (13–27%); low to moderate mortality when treated with the 3 × LD95 of indoxacarb (13–63%), and moderate to high mortality after treatment with the 3 × LD95 of abamectin (80–100%) and hydramethylnon (70–83%). The mortality of all strains remained low after treatment with the 10 × LD99 of deltamethrin (0–20%) and low to moderate with fipronil (20–70%). We found negative correlations (P < 0.05) between Advion Evolution mean survival time and indoxacarb 10 × LD95 mortality and between Maxforce Impact and clothianidin 10 × LD95 mortality. These findings demonstrate multiple resistance towards all tested commercial bait insecticides except Optigard, suggesting the effectiveness of avermectin products in resistance management programs.

The use of topical and oral therapies on pets has revolutionized the control of cat fleas, Ctenocephalides felis felis (Bouché). Herein, we tested the biological activity of two adulticides, fipronil and imidacloprid, and the insect growth regulators (IGRs), methoprene and pyriproxyfen. The LC50's of fipronil, imidacloprid, methoprene, and pyriproxyfen in larval rearing medium for second and third instars were 1.13, 0.73, 0.35, and 0.23 ppm, respectively. Combinations of imidacloprid and methoprene and pyriproxyfen were synergistic. The combination indices (CIs) at an effective dose (ED95) of imidacloprid:methoprene (Im:Meth) were 0.54, 0.44, 0.66, 0.73, and 0.62 for Im1:Meth1, Im5:Meth1, Im10:Meth1, Im20:Meth1, and Im40:Meth1, respectively. Similarly, the CIs of imidacloprid:pyriproxyfen (Im:Pyri) at an ED95 were 0.73 and 0.50 for Im1:Pyri1 and Im5:Pyri1, respectively. Combinations of fipronil:methoprene (Fip:Meth) provided variable results with Fip1:Meth1 being antagonistic (CI = 1.61). Combinations at 5:1, 10:1, and 20:1 at an ED95 were moderately synergistic. Combinations of Fip:Pyri at 1:1 were antagonistic at an ED95 with a CI of 2.87. When the combinations were reversed, neither the imidacloprid nor fipronil synergized either IGR. The dose response indices (DRI) for both Im:Meth and Im:Pyri indicate that the concentrations of the combinations could be significantly reduced and still be as effective as imidacloprid alone. Certain combinations of adulticides and IGRs were synergistic against immature fleas.

As a species, the German cockroach is one of the most widespread indoor urban pests worldwide. While numerous products have been developed to control their spread, German cockroaches continue to contaminate food, transmit disease and cause significant, long-term economic expense to homes, restaurants, hospitals and more. Biology and Management of the German Cockroach summarises the many advances in management technology, products, delivery systems, and basic and applied research over the past 25 years. Leading researchers explain why the German cockroach is a medically important pest and how its microbiome can provide new insights on cockroach physiology and potential novel targets for control. The authors also address the research from a practical standpoint, detailing why baits have replaced sprays as the primary method of control and how population genetic studies allow for better understanding of cockroach dispersal and population structure. Leading experts on integrated pest management (IPM) explore how studies on German cockroach control programs demonstrate the value and feasibility of IPM in urban environments. This book provides the reader with a comprehensive understanding of the German cockroach and will be a valuable reference for researchers, graduate students, pest management professionals, health workers and government agencies dealing with urban pests and pesticides.

Honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) are important ecological and agricultural resources. They are among the most widely available pollinators and provide products as well as services. Unfortunately, honey bee populations are susceptible to several environmental threats, including heavy metal exposure. Honey bees can be exposed to heavy metals when foraging on contaminated honey and pollen resources, and in some cases by airborne exposure. We studied the joint acute and chronic effects of cadmium (Cd) and copper (Cu) on A. mellifera. A 1:1 solution of the two heavy metals increased larval developmental duration and the mortality of both larvae and foragers in a dose-dependent way, decreased forager feeding, increased body metal burdens, and disrupted the sucrose response behavior of foragers. In combination, Cd and Cu demonstrated a weakly synergistic effect on foragers, but for larvae an initially antagonistic effect at low doses changed to strongly synergistic response at higher concentrations. The sucrose response threshold of foragers decreased significantly when they were dosed with increasing concentrations of the metal mixtures. Overall, the fitness of honey bee larvae and foragers is detrimentally affected when these metals co-occur.

Simple Summary The cat flea Ctenocephalides felis felis is the most important pest of domesticated cats and dogs worldwide. This review covers the recent advancements in the control of cat fleas. Over the years, there has been an interest in using ecologically friendly approaches to control fleas. To date, no biological, natural, or cultural means have been discovered that mitigate flea infestations. The recent registration of novel topical and oral therapies promises a new revolution in the control of fleas and ticks and the diseases associated with them. Abstract With the advent of imidacloprid and fipronil spot-on treatments and the oral ingestion of lufenuron, the strategies and methods to control cat fleas dramatically changed during the last 25 years. New innovations and new chemistries have highlighted this progress. Control strategies are no longer based on the tripartite approach of treating the pet, the indoor environment, and outdoors. The ability of modern therapies to break the cat flea life cycle and prevent reproduction has allowed for the stand-alone treatments that are applied or given to the pet. In doing so, we have not only controlled the cat flea, but we have prevented or reduced the impact of many of the diseases associated with ectoparasites and endoparasites of cats and dogs. This review provides an update of newer and non-conventional approaches to control cat fleas.

Here, we review the literature on the development and application of hydrogel compounds for insect pest management. Researchers have used hydrogel compounds for the past few decades to achieve the controlled release of various contact insecticides, but in recent years, hydrogel compounds have also been used to absorb and deliver targeted concentrations of toxicants within a liquid bait to manage insect pests. The highly absorbent hydrogel acts as a controlled-release formulation that keeps the liquid bait available and palatable to the target pests. This review discusses the use of various types of hydrogel compounds in pest management based on different environmental settings (e.g., agricultural, urban, and natural areas), pest systems (e.g., different taxa), and modes of insecticide delivery (e.g., spray vs bait). Due to their unique physicochemical properties, hydrogel compounds have great potential to be developed into new and efficacious pest management strategies with minimal environmental impact. We will also discuss the future research and development of hydrogels in this review.

Baiting is an effective method to manage Vespula spp. yellowjacket (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) populations without having to locate and treat nests. Here, we assessed the utility of a commercially available polyacrylamide hydrogel as an alternative bait material for yellowjacket baiting. The experimental bait (hereafter referred to as 'hydrogel bait') consisted of diluted chicken juice (from canned chicken meat) and fipronil (0.025%, wt/wt) absorbed into granular polyacrylamide hydrogel particles. Three separate 24-h baiting trials were conducted at two different field sites with the western yellowjacket, Vespula pensylvanica (Saussare), as the target species. The monitoring data from pre- and posttreatment periods indicated that baiting with polyacrylamide hydrogel baits provided ≈74-96% reduction in the foraging activity of V. pensylvanica during its active season. In addition to their ability to absorb large quantities of aqueous bait containing phagostimulants and toxicants, the hydrogels' tactile resemblance to fresh meat upon hydration makes them a promising option as a non-meat material for delivering small amounts of insecticides to yellowjacket populations in a highly targeted manner.

Pest management professionals in California receive more customer complaints about Argentine ants than for any other urban ant pest. Fipronil, applied as a 30 × 30 cm band around the house foundation, has become the preferred treatment used to control these ants. Unfortunately, fipronil is now showing up in urban waterways at levels that are toxic to aquatic invertebrates. Our recent studies are aimed at mitigating insecticide runoff while still controlling the ant infestations. A high priority is preventing fipronil runoff from the driveway to the street, where it can flow into drains and from there to urban waterways. In this paper, two related studies address these issues. Not treating driveways with fipronil reduced by two to three orders of magnitude its runoff when compared with earlier studies. However, not treating the driveway can reduce efficacy of treatments. Granular bifenthrin, indoxacarb, botanicals, and a thiamethoxam ant bait were tested as supplemental treatments. The gel bait sho...

Trophallaxis between individual worker ants and the toxicant load in dead and live Argentine ants (Linepithema humile) in colonies exposed to fipronil and hydramethylnon experimental baits were examined using accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS). About 50% of the content of the crop containing trace levels of 14C-sucrose, 14C-hydramethylnon, and 14C-fipronil was shared between single donor and recipient ants. Dead workers and queens contained significantly more hydramethylnon (122.7 and 22.4 amol/μg ant, respectively) than did live workers and queens (96.3 and 10.4 amol/μg ant, respectively). Dead workers had significantly more fipronil (420.3 amol/μg ant) than did live workers (208.5 amol/μg ant), but dead and live queens had equal fipronil levels (59.5 and 54.3 amol/μg ant, respectively). The distribution of fipronil differed within the bodies of dead and live queens; the highest amounts of fipronil were recovered in the thorax of dead queens whereas live queens had the highest levels in the head. Resurgence of polygynous ant colonies treated with hydramethylnon baits may be explained by queen survival resulting from sublethal doses due to a slowing of trophallaxis throughout the colony. Bait strategies and dose levels for controlling insect pests need to be based on the specific toxicant properties and trophic strategies for targeting the entire colony.

The cat flea Ctenocephalides felis felis (Bouche) is the most important ectoparasite of domestic cats and dogs worldwide. It has been two decades since the last comprehensive review concerning the biology and ecology of C. f. felis and its management. Since then there have been major advances in our understanding of the diseases associated with C. f. felis and their implications for humans and their pets. Two rickettsial diseases, flea-borne spotted fever and murine typhus, have been identified in domestic animal populations and cat fleas. Cat fleas are the primary vector of Bartonella henselae (cat scratch fever) with the spread of the bacteria when flea feces are scratched in to bites or wounds. Flea allergic dermatitis (FAD) common in dogs and cats has been successfully treated and tapeworm infestations prevented with a number of new products being used to control fleas. There has been a continuous development of new products with novel chemistries that have focused on increased convenience and the control of fleas and other arthropod ectoparasites. The possibility of feral animals serving as potential reservoirs for flea infestations has taken on additional importance because of the lack of effective environmental controls in recent years. Physiological insecticide resistance in C. f. felis continues to be of concern, especially because pyrethroid resistance now appears to be more widespread. In spite of their broad use since 1994, there is little evidence that resistance has developed to many of the on-animal or oral treatments such as fipronil, imidacloprid or lufenuron. Reports of the perceived lack of performance of some of the new on-animal therapies have been attributed to compliance issues and their misuse. Consequentially, there is a continuing need for consumer awareness of products registered for cats and dogs and their safety.

The western yellow jacket, Vespula penyslvanica (Saussare), is a serious seasonal pest of outdoor venues in the western United States. In the spring, queens and low numbers of workers were captured in heptyl-butyrate-baited traps until early July, when the number of foragers dramatically increased. Microsatellite data suggest that 18 colonies were actively foraging within the park in 2012. Foragers from 11 different colonies were collected at one trap site. In 2012 and 2013, sufficient numbers of foragers were not captured until early August when baiting trials were initiated. Baits were prepared with canned chicken mixed with fipronil for a final concentration of 0.025%. In 2012, a single baiting provided >96% reduction of foragers for at least two months. A second baiting late in the season provided >80% reductions. In 2013, one baiting trial resulted in a 74% and a 93% reduction. A bait acceptance study was conducted in 2014 to test a bait consisting of the juices from canned chicken and 0.025% fipronil incorporated into a hydrogel, and provided a much longer lasting bait in the field.

The purpose of this study was to involve pest management professionals in the design of application techniques and strategies that would be efficacious and also reduce insecticide runoff. Our study involved measuring both the efficacy of treatments for the Argentine ant, Linepithema humile (Mayr), and the concurrent runoff of fipronil and pyrethroids. Two collaborating companies used low-impact protocols for controlling ants while minimizing runoff. Protocol 1 involved bimonthly treatments, while Protocol 2 was monthly. Both protocols involved an initial treatment with a fipronil spray around the foundation. At the garage door-driveway interface, the fipronil application was done as a pin stream for Protocol 1, and as a crack and crevice application in the expansion joint near the garage for Protocol 2. Protocol 1 replaced most pyrethroid sprays with bifenthrin granules placed around bushes and away from the driveway. For the next treatment on day 63, Protocol 1 also included cyfluthrin spray treatments around the house foundation and crack and crevice applications around the edge of the driveway. For the first treatment in Protocol 2, the fipronil spray was supplemented with spot treatments of cyfluthrin. For subsequent Protocol 2 treatments, botanical insecticides were applied. For weeks 1 and 2 posttreatment combined, Protocol 1 had significantly higher reductions in ant numbers compared with Protocol 2. Thereafter there were no significant differences between the protocols. Runoff of bifenthrin from the granules used with Protocol 1 was much lower than in previous trials involving bifenthrin sprays. Day 1 fipronil runoff for Protocol 2 was significantly lower than that for Protocol 1. This difference may be because of the crack and crevice application applied in Protocol 2. Cyfluthrin runoff was minimal for Protocol 2, which involved spot treatments to supplement the fipronil on day 1, or the botanical insecticides for subsequent treatments. Protocol 1 had a large peak of cyfluthrin runoff at day 63 corresponding to their house and driveway treatments.

The Spallation Neutron Source (SNS) was designed and constructed by a collaboration of six U.S. Department of Energy national laboratories. The SNS accelerator system consists of a 1 GeV linear accelerator and an accumulator ring providing 1.4 MW of proton beam power in microsecond-long beam pulses to a liquid mercury target for neutron production. The accelerator complex consists of a front-end negative hydrogen-ion injector system, an 87 MeV drift tube linear accelerator, a 186 MeV side-coupled linear accelerator, a 1 GeV superconducting linear accelerator, a 248-m circumference accumulator ring and associated beam transport lines. The accelerator complex is supported by ~100 high-power RF power systems, a 2 K cryogenic plant, ~400 DC and pulsed power supply systems, ~400 beam diagnostic devices and a distributed control system handling ~100,000 I/O signals. The beam dynamics design of the SNS accelerator is presented, as is the engineering design of the major accelerator subsystems.

The velvety tree ant, Limetopum occidentale Emery, is commonly found in urban areas throughout the western U.S. and has been reported damaging structures. Foragers prefer sucrose, glucose, and honey sucanat solutions. Solid protein baits containing anchovy also were retrieved by workers. In the early summer, foragers were active both day and night. In the late summer when daytime temperatures exceeded 35°C, workers only foraged at night. Even though workers are polymorphic, they all consumed about 0.25 mg of a 25% sucrose solution and thus providing a mechanism of determining foraging activity by determining sugar water removal from monitoring stations. Liquid bait bases containing 25% sucrose would be effective if suitable toxicants can be identified.

The Turkestan cockroach, Blatta lateralis (Walker), has become an important invasive species throughout the southwestern United States and has been reported in the southern United States. It is rapidly replacing the oriental cockroach, Blatta orientalis (L.), in urban areas of the southwestern United States as the most important peri-domestic species. They typically inhabit in-ground containers such as water meter, irrigation, and electrical boxes, raises of concrete, cracks and crevices, and hollow block walls. On occasion, they will invade dwellings. At 26.7 degrees C, male and female nymphs developed into adults in an average of 222 and 224 d, respectively. Both males and females had five nymphal instars. Adult females deposited up to 25 oothecae. The oothecae averaged 16.8 eggs and 13.9 nymphs emerged per egg capsule, resulting in an 82.7% hatch rate. Adults lived for at least 612 d. Two parameters that might contribute to the success of Turkestan cockroaches compared with oriental cockroaches are that the developmental period of the nymphs of Turkestan cockroaches are shorter and adult female Turkestan cockroaches produce considerably more oothecae than do oriental cockroaches. These may explain the observations by Pest Management Professionals that Turkestan cockroaches are displacing oriental cockroaches in outdoor habitats throughout the southwestern United States.

We conducted trials in a citrus grove infested with Argentine ants [Linepithema humile (Mayr); Hymenoptera: Formicidae] using bait stations (9.8 per ha) filled with bait consisting of either 0.001% imidacloprid as one treatment or 0.25% methoprene as a second treatment. The 2 treated areas and a control were widely separated in the grove. Within each area, trees were randomly selected to receive sucrose water monitors. Consumption of the sucrose water is a measurement of ant foraging activity that we used to compare treatments and the control. For all weekly samples except one, consumption by ants in the imidacloprid-treated area was significantly lower than in the controls. The methoprene treatments gave a more complex outcome: the consumption of the bait was significantly higher than in the controls during wk 5 and 8, but then rapidly descended below the consumption level of the control during wk 11 and 12. A post-experimental examination of the control and methoprene areas showed that queen nu...

BACKGROUND Urban and residential concrete surfaces are often treated with pesticides to control ants. Run-off from irrigation/rainfall can remove pesticides from concrete and contaminate urban waterways. Recent regulations and mitigations in regions such as California aim to reduce insecticide run-off (e.g. pyrethroids), but are often proposed without adequate consideration of their impact on ant control efficacy. METHODS We carried out an outdoor study with a side-by-side comparison between pesticide run-off potential and residual ant toxicity after exposing treated concrete to summer conditions and simulated precipitations. RESULTS Treatments with bifenthrin, permethrin or fipronil all showed fast ant knockdown initially, and over 50% of ants were killed within 16 h after 1-min contact with the treated surfaces. Shorter ant median lethal time (LT50) was observed on concrete treated with over-the-counter (OTC) granule/dust formulations than OTC liquid or professional formulations. However, the treated surfaces rapidly lost ant control efficacy after outdoor exposure and repeated precipitations. Except for OTC solid permethrin treatment, the ant toxicity disappeared after 20 days for all other formulation treatments. In contrast, pesticides were detected in run-off water from simulated precipitations even 89 days after the treatment, with levels above 0.5 µg L−1 for bifenthrin, 30 µg L−1 for permethrin and 0.15 µg L−1 for fipronil. Pyrethroid run-offs from OTC solid formulations were >10 times higher than the other two formulations. CONCLUSIONS The results suggested viable options for run-off mitigation include decreasing use on concrete such as using crack/spot treatments instead of broadcast applications, limiting pesticide use on hardscapes away from water contact, and avoiding using dust/granule formulations on hardscapes. © 2013 Society of Chemical Industry

In 2001, an international surveillance initiative was established, utilising a validated larval development inhibition assay to track the susceptibility of cat flea isolates to imidacloprid. In 2009, an Australian node was incorporated into the programme, joining laboratories in the United States and Europe. Field isolates of Ctenocephalides felis eggs were submitted to participating laboratories and, where egg quantity and quality was sufficient, were placed in the imidacloprid discriminating dose bioassay for evaluation. Between 2002 and 2012, a total of 2,307 cat flea isolates were received across all sites; 1,685 submissions (73 %) were suitable for placement into the bioassay. In the Northern Hemisphere, isolate submission rate was influenced by season, with highest numbers submitted between June and October. In Australia, pets with flea infestations could be sourced year-round, and submission rate was largely influenced by programme factors and not climate. A total of 1,367 valid assays were performed between 2002 and 2012 (assay validity data was not recorded in 2001); adult flea emergence 5 % or greater at 3 ppm imidacloprid was observed in 38 of these assays (2.8 %). For these isolates that reached the threshold for further investigation, re-conduct of the assay using either a repeat challenge dose of 3 ppm of imidacloprid or a dose response probit analysis confirmed their susceptibility to imidacloprid. From 2009 to 2012, the Australian node performed valid assays on 97 field isolates from a total of 136 submissions, with no adult emergence observed at the 3-ppm imidacloprid discriminating dose. In addition to reviewing the data generated by this twelve-year initiative, this paper discusses lessons learned from the coordination and evolution of a complex project across geographically dispersed laboratories on three continents.

Ants belonging to the genus Liometopum are regionally distributed across North America, Europe and Asia. L. apiculatum Mayr, L. luctuosum Wheeler, and L. occidentale Emery are found in western North America and are referred to as velvety tree ants. Very little is known about the biology of these species, but they are similar. They are typically associated with trees and shrubs and are frequently found tending hemipterans. All three species are are easily disturbed and and resort to highly aggressive behaviors including the use of strong alarm odors. The following review is intended to summarize the literature regarding the biology and control of these species. Special emphasis has been given to factors that might be important in their control and gaps in our current knowledge.

The brown widow spider, Latrodectus geometricus C. L. Koch 1841, is non-native to North America and has experienced an explosive range expansion in the first decade of the 21st century. Previously restricted to peninsular Florida, it is now well established in the southeastern United States and southern California. In southern California, brown widow spiders have become ubiquitous around urban homes and are well known to the general public because of their high numbers and distinctive spiked egg sacs. Several insects attack egg sacs of the native western black widow, L. hesperus Chamberlin & Ivie 1935, as either parasitoids or egg predators. We investigated whether and to what degree these insects would attack brown widow egg sacs. We dissected 3,739 brown widow egg sacs finding evidence of the chloropid fly, Pseudogaurax signatus (Loew 1876) in 2.0% and wasp parasitoids in 0.4% of the sacs. For comparison, we also dissected 263 western black widow egg sacs with P. signatus showing a higher level...

The spider Holocnemus pluchei (Scopoli) (Araneae: Pholcidae) is a nonnative species commonly found in the southwestern United States. In urban areas around homes and other structures, it is often the dominant spider species on outside surfaces; requests for control of spiders and their cobwebs are common for the commercial pest management industry. We tested two physical (brushing and vacuuming) and two low-impact chemical (permethrin and botanical insecticide) spray control methods for H. pluchei on outbuildings on the University of California-Riverside campus. Forty sites containing at least two H. pluchei spiders along a 5-m section of eave or overhang were chosen for treatment. Treatment was applied within 2 d of a pretreatment census. The number of spiders per section was counted at 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, and 52 wk posttreatment. Untreated sections showed an increase in spiders through summer and a decrease in autumn. Sites treated with permethrin significantly reduced spiders >95% and had strong residual effect throughout the remainder of the sampling period. Compared with untreated controls, the three other treatments did not significantly reduce spiders; these three were similar throughout the season and were intermediate between untreated and permethrin-treated sites. In comparison with the before and 2-wk posttreatments, spiders at the untreated sites showed no difference in body sizes, whereas those in the nonpermethrin treatments showed a decrease, indicating that larger spiders were eliminated. We also tested H. pluchei spiders in the laboratory against the two insecticides used in the field studies to determine the minimum lethal concentrations for controlling H. pluchei.

A novel bait station referred to as a virtual bait station was developed and tested against field populations of the invasive Argentine ant, Linepithema humile (Mayr) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), at White Beach, Camp Pendleton, in Oceanside, CA. White Beach is a nesting habitat for an endangered seabird, the California least tern (Sterna antillarum browni Mearns). The beach is heavily infested with Argentine ants, one of the threats for the California least tern chicks. Conventional pest control strategies are prohibited because of the existence of the protected bird species and the site's proximity to the ocean. The bait station consisted of a polyvinyl chloride pipe that was treated on the inside with fipronil insecticide at low concentrations to obtain delayed toxicity against ants. The pipe was provisioned with an inverted bottle of 25% sucrose solution, then capped, and buried in the sand. Foraging ants crossed the treated surface to consume the sucrose solution. The delayed toxicity of fipronil deposits allowed the ants to continue foraging on the sucrose solution and to interact with their nestmates, killing them within 3-5 d after exposure. Further modification of the bait station design minimized the accumulation of dead ants in the sucrose solution, significantly improving the longevity and efficacy of the bait station. The virtual bait station exploits the foraging behavior of the ants and provides a low impact approach to control ants in environmentally sensitive habitats. It excluded all insects except ants, required only milligram quantities of toxicant, and eliminated the problem of formulating toxicants into aqueous sugar baits.

The periodicity of molting and resumption of feeding after molting was investigated in the brown recluse spider, Loxosceles reclusa Gertsch and Mulaik (Sicariidae). Spiders molted almost every hour of the day but there was a tendency to molt more frequently between 8 A.M. and 1 A.M. Spiderlings resumed feeding after 20 hrs post-molt with feeding occuring more frequently around the 43rd hour and well-established after 48 hrs. The brown recluse spider, Loxosceles reclusa Gertsch and Mulaik (Sicariidae), is one of the best known spiders in North America, being familiar outside of the arachnological world due to its ability to cause necrotic skin lesions and the propensity of humans to exaggerate this capability. Even though the toxicological aspects of its venom and the medical consequences that ensue are well researched, there is comparatively little information regarding aspects of its life history. Molting in arthropods is a period of extreme change. In spiders, a few days before molting, the legs darken as new setae become evident under the old cuticle (Peck and Whitcomb, 1970; Foelix, 1996) so the onset of molting is obvious. Feeding ceases and does not resume until some degree of exoskeletal hardening occurs. Molting can consume a significant amount of energy. In six spider species studied by Celerier (1986) (theraphosid, four lycosids, ctenid), exuvia production represented 5 to 16% of the growth production for the entire post-embryonic development . Various developmental life history traits in Loxosceles spiders have been documented. The length of individual instars, time from egg to maturity, and overall longevity have been rigorously investigated for L. reclusa (Hite et al., 1966; Horner and Stewart, 1967), L. laeta (Nicolet) (Galiano, 1967), L. gaucho Gertsch (Rinaldi et al., 1997), L. hirsuta Mello-Leitao (Fischer and da Silva, 2001) and L. intermedia Mello-Leitao (Fischer and Vasconcellos-Neto, 2005). However, other aspects, such as molting periodicity and resumption of feeding post-molt in Loxosceles spiders, have not been researched to our knowledge and, hence, we present our research herein.

In a previous experimental study, recluse spiders Loxosceles reclusa Gertsch and Mulaik and Loxosceles laeta (Nicolet) (Araneae: Sicariidae) preferred small cardboard refugia covered with conspecific silk compared with never-occupied refugia. Herein, we investigated some factors that might be responsible for this preference using similar cardboard refugia. When the two Loxosceles species were given choices between refugia previously occupied by their own and by the congeneric species, neither showed a species-specific preference; however, each chose refugia coated with conspecific silk rather than those previously inhabited by a distantly related cribellate spider, Metaltella simoni (Keyserling). When L. laeta spiders were offered refugia that were freshly removed from silk donors compared with heated, aged refugia from the same silk donor, older refugia were preferred. Solvent extracts of L. laeta silk were chosen approximately as often as control refugia when a range of solvents (methylene chloride:methanol, water, and hexane) were used. However, when acetone was used on similar silk, there was a statistical preference for the control, indicating that there might be a mildly repellent aspect to acetone-washed silk. Considering the inability to show attraction to chemical aspects of fresh silk, it seems that physical attributes may be more important for selection and that there might be repellency to silk of a recently vacated spider. These findings are discussed in regard to pest management strategies to control recluse spiders.

One of the most conspicuous and stereotyped activities of social insects such as ants and honey bees is necrophoresis, the removal of dead colony members from the nest. Previous researchers suggested that decomposition products such as fatty acids trigger necrophoric behavior by ant workers. However, fatty acids elicit both foraging and necrophoric responses, depending on the current nest activities (e.g., feeding or nest maintenance). Furthermore, workers often carry even freshly killed workers (dead for Linepithema humile , undergoes rapid changes after death. When the workers are alive or freshly killed, relatively large amounts of 2 characteristic ant-produced compounds, dolichodial and iridomyrmecin, are present on the ants' cuticle. However, these compounds disappear from the cuticle within about 1 h after death. We demonstrate how this phenomenon supports an alternative mechanism of ant necrophoresis in which the precise recognition and rapid removal of dead nestmates are elicited by the disappearance of these chemical signals associated with life.

This paper analyzes 300-mm manufacturing inefficiencies that need to be addressed to improve productivity in the next-generation factory, classifies them into seven general themes, quantifies their business impacts, and identifies specific improvements needed for each as the basis for collaboration between integrated device manufacturers and equipment vendors to address the issues.

Liquid ant baits are an alternative to broad-spectrum insecticide sprays conventionally used to control Argentine ants. We review the development of liquid ant baits, which capitalize on the ants' sugar-feeding requirements and social structure to deliver small doses of toxicant throughout the colony. The ant bait program described here, developed for commercial vineyards, also has the potential to facilitate the use of biological controls for mealybug and scale pests. The implementation of an Argentine ant bait program will enable grape growers to target other pests more selectively with insecticides, further contributing to their sustainable viticulture practices.

A variety of refugia were offered to different instars of brown recluse spiders, Loxosceles reclusa Gertsch and Mulaik, and a South American recluse spider, L. laeta (Nicolet), to determine whether they preferred certain types of refugia spaces. Variables included (1) crevice widths ranging from 3.2 to 21 mm, (2) horizontal and vertical orientations, and (3) new refugia or refugia that had silk deposited by a previous conspecific resident. An additional 30-d assay with similar-sized refugia studied each species’ propensity for site fidelity or movement among refugia. L. reclusa preferred crevice widths ≥9 mm with no correlation of body size to crevice width, whereas L. laeta preferred crevice sizes ≥6.4 mm with a marginally significant correlation between crevice width and body size. Both species preferred (1) vertical instead of horizontal-oriented refugia and (2) refugia with conspecific silk compared with previously uninhabited refugia. There was no significant difference between the species in their propensity to move among refugia in the 30-d trial; however, both species had individuals that were always found in the same refugium for the entire assay and individuals changing refugia every 2–3 d. The propensity to switch refugia was not affected by the degree of starvation for the period tested as was initially hypothesized. The possible implications of this research toward developing novel control measures for Loxosceles spiders are discussed.