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Cast house is the heart of blast furnace operation. A stable blast furnace operation requires proper control of hot metal and slag drainage from the hearth. Various problems are encountered if the hearth liquid level exceeds above a critical limit that leads to an unstable blast furnace condition. Moreover, operating too often to control liquid level is also not recommended, as operational cost is increased and refractory erosion increases. Therefore, there is a need to understand the reason that prevails in the abnormal hearth liquid level situations. Understanding the effect of increased hearth liquid level on blast furnace process parameters will enable blast furnace operation to take the proactive actions of controlling the blast furnace abnormality. In the present review, an attempt is made to establish a correlational research to understand the effect on hearth liquid level on various casting parameters and blast furnace process conditions. The adverse effect of hearth liquid level build-up on the state of dead man, gas permeability, tuyere life, hearth linings, slag delay and furnace wall heat load is studied. The various casting strategies adopted in blast furnace operation are discussed along with their advantages and disadvantages, and finally, the recommendations are made to operate the liquid level on narrow band.

M. K. Gandhi is no academic psychologist; but his philosophy and practice of pragmatic spirituality have important implications for psychology in general and Indian psychology in particular. Psychology as taught and practised in India is mostly Western and not Indian psychology. Indian psychology is an emerging system of psychology with its roots in classical Indian thought. According to Gandhi, the person is instinctively brute, but inherently spiritual. Consequently, he/she has on the one hand natural attraction to sensory gratification and indulgence, selfish desires and craving. On the other hand, he or she aspires for self-realization. Human development is a dialectical process where people seek to find a workable synthesis between sensory indulgence and spiritual aspirations, between egotistic selfishness and altruistic urges. Gandhi’s life provides an excellent case study of the ways of spiritual development. The techniques he crafted like satyagraha and the strategies he followed in his public life give us insights into how spirituality can be applied to improve human condition. The applications are not India specific, but universal. Therefore, psychologists from the East as well as from the West can join in exploring Gandhian ideas and techniques of psycho-spiritual development and their relevance to today’s troubled world.

Mind is the pivotal concept crucial for understanding psychological processes in all their complexity. This chapter presents a comprehensive analysis of the concept of mind from Indian and Western perspectives. After presenting a brief review of Western theories of mind, a discussion of the concept of mind in classical orthodox and heterodox Indian systems of thought is offered. An effort is also made to describe the ways in which the Western and Indian perspectives differ and yet complement each other. After discussing cognition, mind, consciousness, self, paranormal phenomena, Karma, Sanskāras, and Jīva, it is argued that these perspectives are mutually complementary and capable of generating reinforcing models. Together, they enable us to have a more complete picture of humans, how they function, and what may be done to harness mind’s full potential for human development and enabling wholesome functioning of the person.

Responding to the comments on the paper “Positive Psychology and Indian Psychology in Need of Mutual Reinforcement”, the present paper provides further clarification to the meaning, substance and relevance of Indian psychology, the points of confluence and the sources of variance between it and positive psychology. It emphasizes that Indian psychology is psychology in the making that has enormous implications for broadening the scope of psychology. It goes on to suggest that humans are not mere biologically driven machines, but they are also consciousness manifesting beings. As such they need to be studied not only at the neurophysiological level but also from the perspective of consciousness as such. This opens up new doors to discover numerous hidden human potentials and how they may be harnessed for common good and individual happiness. To illustrate this, general contours of applied Indian psychology are drawn and their implications to health and wellness are outlined. This enables one to see the substantive areas for possible collaborative efforts by those working in the areas of positive psychology and Indian psychology.

The current practices of positive psychology are woven into the behavioural fabric in the form of numerous strategies/practices without much theoretical foundation. Positive psychology moved from repair to reconstruction, from the negative side of human nature to its positive aspect. Indian psychology is relevant as it has the necessary meta-theoretical framework to sustain the goals of positive psychology. It proposes that mind may be controlled by deconstructing the ego and cultivating altruism by practicing selfless work, total absorption of the mind by devotion or meditation. When the ego is deconstructed, ignorance is removed and the person regains her inherent freedom and moves towards perfection. This position allows going beyond hedonistic pleasures to define happiness and combining material prosperity with moral sensitivity. To this end this paper brings out the points of contact between positive psychology and Indian psychology and argues for new initiatives.

Yoga is a native Indian psychospiritual craft. It dates back to antiquity. It was, however, systematized as a distinct school of classical Indian philosophy by Patanjali in his Yoga-Sūtra during second century B.C. This chapter provides a translation of and commentary on each sutra in psychological idiom of the first part of the book called Samādhi Pada. It discusses (a) the background of Patanjali’s Yoga, (b) Yoga theory of samādhi, (c) the nature of mind according to Yoga, (d) Yoga concept of God, (e) hindrances to controlling mind, (f) different kinds and categories of samādhi, (g) the goal of yoga and concludes with a summary of the chapter. According to several commentators, this part of Yoga-Sutra contains the quintessence of Yoga. For this reason, it is in a sense central to the Yoga treatise. It addresses more who are relatively advanced and adept in concentrating and focusing their mind than the beginners.

The final chapter contains discussion of Mahatma Gandhi’s life and the practices he championed as illustrative of the basic tenants of Indian psychology. Topics discussed include: (a) psychology in the Indian tradition, (b) meta-theoretical framework of Indian psychology, (c) spiritual aspects of Gandhian nonviolence, (d) satyāgraha and conflict resolution. Abhyāsa and vairagya, the twin principles of Indian psychology, find their full expression in the life and practices of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, popularly known as Mahatma Gandhi. The contributions of Gandhi for promoting harmony and brotherhood of men and women around the world are arguably among the most consequential during the second half of twentieth century. Indian psychology has the ingredients to meaningfully understand such extraordinary persons as Gandhi. Gandhi’s satyāgraha assumes a spiritual component in human nature, and it is the appeal to man’s spiritual nature that brings about nonviolent conflict resolution. In Gandhi’s view, man is a composite of the beast and the human. We need to control the beast and cultivate the human by practice of nonviolence.

Yoga practice as described in Patanjali’s Yoga Sūtra is the main theme of this chapter. Stanza by stanza translation of and commentary on each of the sutras in the second part of Yoga Sūtra are given in psychological terms. This part begins with description of action-based practical yoga, appropriately called Kriya Yoga. It is a threefold practice involving (a) ascetic practices, (b) spiritual wisdom, and (c) unwavering faith in God. Ascetic practices such as Tapas are meant to promote self-discipline. Spiritual wisdom is gained by self-study (svādhyāya). Faith in God promotes surrender of the self through celestial love and thus helps to overcome the ego. Self-surrender leads one to undertake action for its own sake rather than aspiring for its fruits. The sources of suffering in human condition are called kleśas in Yoga. Kriya Yoga is meant to attenuate kleśas, which corrupt the mind and hinder the practice of yoga. Kleśas are five in number. They are (1) ignorance (avidya), lack of true knowledge, (2) egoness (asmita), the feeling of I-ness, (3) attachment (rāga), (4) aversion (dveṣa), and (5) will-to-live (abhiniveśa).

This chapter discusses different connotations of meditation and what it truly means. It goes on to review the various forms of meditation used in contemporary research against the backdrop of Buddhistic and Hindu traditions. Meditation is an important step in the eight-step practice of yoga. It is the seventh of the eight steps involved in yoga practice. It is meant essentially to control the natural wanderings of the mind. In Buddhist meditation, concentration as well as mindfulness is practiced. They help to achieve a higher state of awareness where the mind is unobsessed, and free from the compulsions of the ego and the delusion of permanence. Buddhaghoṣa’s Viśuddhimagga is an important source book of Buddhistic meditation in the Theravāda tradition. Meditative techniques used in empirical research include (a) focused/concentrative form of meditation, (b) transcendental meditation (TM), (c) Benson’s relaxation response, (d) mindfulness or passive meditation, and (e) vipassanā and Zen meditation.

Kaivalya is the goal of yoga. Psychic powers and other phenomena may manifest following the practice of samyama, the triple effort of dhārana, dhyāna, and samādhi. However, the ultimate goal of yoga is to achieve a state of kaivalya, liberating the self from the engagement with sensory appetites and mundane pleasures to a state of spiritual bliss. The chapter includes a discussion of yoga epistemology and ontology, how one may reach kaivalya and achieve liberation from sensory bondage. The nature of kleśas that impede spiritual progress, karma, the principle of causation, and samskāras, the hidden persuaders and instigators of human action, yoga views on perception and cognition are also subjects of discussion in this chapter. Further, the existential link between consciousness and the mind and the matter of multiplicity of puruṣas are discussed. The chapter concludes with the description of kaivalya as a state of perfection in disembodied as well as the embodied state of the self.

This Chapter contains a review of empirical studies of meditation. Included in the discussion are psychological and neurophysiological effects and correlates, EEG, and neuroimaging studies of meditation. This chapter concludes with a discussion on whether the meditative state is a unique physiological state. Studies of meditation by practitioners of yoga, Zen, and transcendental meditation (TM) suggest that meditative state is a distinct and unique state of mind and that it lowers arousal and is conducive to better health and well-being. However, considering the fact that practices of meditation vary significantly in different meditative traditions, it is difficult to pinpoint precisely what it is in meditation that is conducive for promoting health and wellness. Also, there is no compelling neurophysiological configuration which may be considered as unique to a meditative state. Empirical research shows that meditation enhances one’s ability to focus attention, and attention is the key ingredient in the control of mind. Other cognitive effects of meditation include improved memory. The paranormal effects of meditation are a significant part of Patanjali’s Yoga Sūtra.

This chapter presents Trisula or Trident Model of the person as a complex of consciousness, mind, and body. It is derived from yoga psychology. Its basic postulate is that consciousness is different from the mind and that it exists independent of the mind. Mind merely reflects consciousness. This chapter goes on to discuss its implications for understanding the conundrums of parapsychological phenomena, the challenges of consciousness puzzle, and the relevance of yoga psychology to mainstream psychology. From the Western perspective, parapsychological phenomena continue to be anomalies because there is no suitable model or a viable theory of the person that would meaningfully accommodate them as natural. Similarly, consciousness continues to be an enigma that defies scientific understanding from the Western model of the mind. It is either denied to exist or explained away as an epiphenomenon. Yoga psychology comfortably accommodates the possibility of paranormal phenomena as well as nonphysical consciousness having its own independent existence.

In the Indian tradition, psychology is the study of the person (jiva). The person is a composite of consciousness, mind and body, a unique blend of thought, passion and action. Consciousness is perceived as changeless and the permanent base of all knowledge and awareness. Mind is the interfacing instrumentality, a necessary link between consciousness and the body. The body is the physical base, and the frame that constrains and moulds consciousness reflected in the mind of the person. The person, in the existential condition, is seen as conditioned, her consciousness is clouded and consequently unable to know the truth and realize her full potential. This is considered to be a state of ignorance and suffering that needs to be overcome. The goal of Indian Psychology is to understand the human condition and to explore ways to elevate it to higher levels of being, to clear the clouds of ignorance, and to enable the person to attain a state of bliss where the truth is known and the person becomes perfect. Three ways of achieving such a state are suggested: work (karma marga), worship (bhakti marga), and wisdom (jnana marga), which appear to cater to the three basic aspects of the mind: volition, emotion and cognition. In essence, each of these is a distinct way of deconstructing the ego, which is believed to be the main obstacle to transcending existential limitations. The applications of IP include (1) holistic understanding of human nature, (2) exploring the extended spectrum of the human condition, (3) exploiting the hidden potentials for the common good, and (4) cultivating altruism in the person and conflict-free conditions in society.

The choice of the three topics covered in this chapter is suggested by the parallel between the traditional Indian view of jīva or person as who knows (jnatā), enjoys/suffers (bhoktā) and acts as an agent (kartā) on the one hand, and the trilogy of cognition, emotion and volition in modern psychology on the other. In view of the vast material on the nature of cognition found in the writings of many schools of Indian thought, only the views of Śaṅkara’s Advaita are discussed here in some detail. Placing his views against the backdrop of the world view of the Vedas and the Upaniṣads, Śaṅkara points out the inherent limitations of the human cognitive apparatus. There is a natural tendency to understand new experience in light of old, which limits what is given in experience, while the tendency to add elements based on past experience leads to distortion. The constructivist notions of cognition in the Advaita are pointed out, and the Advaitic meditation is explained in terms of cognitive deconstruction of the ego. Moving to traditional Indian views of emotion, the concept of rasa, or aesthetic moods in Bharata’s dramaturgical thesis is explained. Given that the dramatic presentation of emotions often leads to a simultaneously shared experience of members of the audience, the transformation of emotion in aesthetic moods is recognized as a trans-individual phenomenon. We then explain how dramaturgical insights about the nature of emotions are used in explaining the nature of spiritual development in religious devotion. The last third of the chapter discusses Indian views of volition within the context of the Doctrine of karma, and the principles underlying karma-yoga primarily following the Bhagavad-Gītā. Finally we interpret the principles underlying karma-yoga in light of relevant concepts in contemporary psychology.

This chapter is devoted to explaining what Indian psychology is, and to clarify what it is not. It is not psychology as it is most commonly practiced in India, nor is it about people in India. Rather, it is a broad approach to psychology which is informed and shaped by the long and rich intellectual and spiritual traditions of India, and by the predominant ethos of the Indian cultural tradition. Although Indian psychology is influenced by its cultural origin just as “indigenous” psychology of India is, it is different from the latter in being potentially applicable across cultures, and not being restricted to people of India. Indian psychology involves the study of the person, and the person is conceived as a composite of body, mind and consciousness. Leaving a discussion of this basic theme to later chapters, we offer an overview of the sources of ideas in ancient texts as well as a brief discussion of more recent publications about historical contributions. We then turn to a discussion of methods of study appropriate for studies in Indian psychology. The applicability of various methods currently in vogue is examined along with the limited relevance of the grounding of many of them in the physicalist world view of logical positivism. Finally, we point out how Indian psychology is different from the currently prevailing Western approaches.

This chapter sketches the cultural background of Indian psychology going back to the earliest times. The ṚgVedic counterpart of the Biblical myth of genesis is briefly described, and its basically agnostic conclusions are noted. Its implications for psychology are pointed out against the backdrop of the history of Western psychology, where the debates between Biblical and Darwinian perspectives and the mind–body problem continue to be divisive. It is pointed out that since the time of the Upaniṣads the predominant view of the relationship between humans and nature is one of man-in-nature, as distinguished from the Biblical as scientific perspectives imply a man-over-nature attitude. The Doctrine of Karma, which presumes the ongoing and inevitable effect of willed action on experience and behavior of persons, is explained and its implications for positive as well as normative views of psychology are pointed out. The concept of dharma is briefly explained, and its main conceptualization as a society’s dominant ethos, rather than as a “religion” analogous to Abrahamic faiths, is pointed out. It is recognized that, insofar as social norms shape individual behaviors, dharma is a persistent factor influencing behavior. Hence, the concepts of dharma and karma form a foundational pair in Indian psychology. Finally, the concept of duḥkha as pervasive suffering in human life is explained, and the goal of its removal is recognized as the theme shaping the applied aspect of Indian psychology.

This chapter involves an in-depth discussion of the nature of consciousness, which is arguably the central theme of psychology in the Indian tradition. Given the return of consciousness as a major topic of interest in a broad interdisciplinary setting, Ramakrishna Rao presents his taxonomic model that covers a broad spectrum of the varied states of consciousness. Against the backdrop of this wide canvas major perspectives on consciousness in a variety of schools of Indian thought are described. The first one covered in this context is the Advaita perspective, followed by its traditional rival in the Buddhist tradition. It is noted how the Advaita perspective originating in the Veda and the Upaniṣads is enriched mainly by Śaṅkara in his Brahma-Sūtra Bhāṣya. The Advaita view makes a clear distinction between the ordinary state of wakefulness on the one hand, and the extra-ordinary Fourth State (turiyā) characterized by existence (sat), knowledge (cit) and positive emotion (ānanda). The Buddhist approach presents a detailed phenomenological description of ordinary as well as extra-ordinary states of consciousness. It is pointed out that, regardless of the sharp contrasts between the Advaita and Buddhist perspectives in terms of their metaphysical assumptions, both systems accept the great value of the transcendental states in realizing the ideal states of variously described as mukti and nibbāna (nirvāṇa). The last section of the chapter is devoted to the discussion of psychology of consciousness in Sāṁkhya-Yoga.

In this chapter we present an overview of a variety of applications in Indian psychology in the fields of mental health and psychological well-being. A most prominent application is found in the Yoga-Sūtras of Patanjali. Its aim is to provide a radical remedy for suffering (duḥkha) that pervades the human condition. Persistent effort (abhyāsa) in attaining control over the constant fluctuations of the mind, and cultivating the habit of non-attachment (vairāgya) are suggested its basic means along with physical postures and breathing exercises. According to Patanjali, suffering results primarily from misconstrued notions of the self, and when the fluctuations of the mind are completely controlled, the true self, which is blissful in nature, is revealed. There are several implications of this basic model, which are explained in subsequent sections of this chapter. The first implication is that the realization of the blissful true self, and the resulting cessation of suffering, suggests itself as a supreme goal for human development. A pedagogic implication which naturally follows from the above is that self-realization should be recognized as the highest good (niḥśreyasa) over and above self-actualization and resulting worldly success and prosperity (abhyudaya). Correspondingly, an implication for therapy is that it should aim at a complete transformation of the individual leading to the transcendence of the ego, rather than a mere adjustment of the ego. After a brief account of ways for preventing illness as presented in Patanjali’s Yoga and in the medical system of Āyurveda, we present a brief discussion of the potential relevance of Indian psychology to psychotherapeutic practices as explained particularly by Michael Miovic and Alok Pandey. The last section points out the convergence between Indian psychology and the newly emerging field of positive psychology.

Various techniques of meditation of Indian and Tibetan origin are getting increasingly popular in the practice of clinical psychology in the past few decades. Also, there is burgeoning literature on clinical and neuropsychological research on the practice of meditation. Before examining the outcomes of this research we first examine what meditation means as described in basic texts of two traditions that are currently popular, namely concentrative methods based on Yoga and vipaśyanā, a Buddhist technique often known as mindful meditation. Of these, the technique of Transcendental Meditation (TM) developed by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi as a variation of the traditional yogic method is arguably the most popular. Since the start of research on TM the emphasis has been on neurophysiological concomitants of meditation. As this line of research continues, there is a parallel trend investigating the psychological aspects of meditation—cognition, attention, anxiety or lack of it. There is an emerging interest in the more positive effects such as kindness and compassion. Against this background we present a detailed discussion of the spiritual, psychic, conative, and emotional effects of meditation as revealed in a wide range of research reports. Then we discuss the various therapeutic applications of the practice of meditation for general health, anxiety disorders, hypertension, and so on. Finally we present an overview of what all this means.

In this chapter we present case studies illustrating the life and work of three persons who successfully practiced three forms of yoga: Lokamanya B.G. Tilak, an exponent and practitioner of karma yoga, Saint Tukārāma, a quintessential practitioner of bhakti yoga, and Sri Ramaṇa Maharshi, who attained self-realization primarily through the practice of jnāna yoga. Tilak was a journalist and a scholar, a patriot who fought against the British Empire. In his monumental work called the Gītārahasya, he explained the Doctrine of karma and the philosophy of karma yoga. In the Indian tradition philosophy is nothing if not practiced in real life. Accordingly, we examine the biographical accounts of his life history in terms of how and how far his behavior reflected the philosophy which he explained and advocated. Likewise, we examine the life history of Tukārāma in the light of the theory of bhakti as explained from the ancient text of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa as well as the late medieval interpretations by the Goswamis of the GauḍīyaVaiṣṇava school. While we note the words in his poems that indicate his attainment of self-realization, we also point out its positive result was demonstrated in the form of unlimited compassion in his behavior. In the last section of this chapter we discuss the teachings of Sri Ramana Maharshi indicating how closely they follow the philosophy of jnāna yoga as expounded since the ancient times of the Upaniṣads through the works of Śaṅkara. Finally we point out that the three forms of yoga described in this chapter are not sequestered into separate compartments while pointing out the elements of other forms of yoga found in their lives.

The first part of this chapter is devoted to the discussion of the varied conceptions of self, which usually convey what it means to be a person. The Indian tradition has witnessed a long-standing debate between two opposing perspectives on the existence of self. While one of them affirms the existence of self, the other denies it. The former position is reflected mainly among followers of the Upaniṣadic tradition, while the latter involves various schools of Buddhism and materialist followers of Cārvāka. The discussion here focuses mainly on the Advaita of Śaṅkara and Rāmānuja’s Viśiṣṭādvaita, Sāṁkhya-Yoga, Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika and Jainism along with the Buddhist doctrine of no-self (anattā). The second part of the chapter turns to the concept of person called jῑva in Indian thought. It is pointed out that the concept of jῑva as an individual who is conscious (cetā), and is a knower (jnātā), feeler (bhoktā), and agent (kartā) has a close parallel in John Locke’s view of person equipped with capacities for cognition, affect, and volition. Likewise, the parallel is pointed out between the Indian concepts of svabhāva and prakṛti on the one hand, and the concept of personality in modern psychology which recognizes the stable patterns of an individual’s behavior. This is followed by a discussion of the personality typology based on the concepts of guṇas in the Bhagavad-Gītā, doṣas in the medical system of Āyurveda, and pudgala in the Buddhist text called Pudgala-Pannatti. The last section presents an overview of recent psychometric studies of guṇa and doṣa typologies.

The last chapter is devoted to an account of the life history of Mahatma Gandhi as an illustration of the personal and social transformation through the “yoga of nonviolence” which he developed, preached and practiced. After sketching Gandhi’s historical and personal background, we first discuss in some detail Gandhi’s views of human nature and human development. We note how Gandhi’s thinking was deeply influenced by spirituality of the Bhagavad-Gītā and its ideal of sthitha-prajnatā. Gandhi’s view of human development is explained as a form of dialectic between the divine and devil embedded in human nature. We note that, aside from the Gītā, Gandhi’s thinking was influenced by the Jaina philosophy of anekantawada, which emphasizes the idea of one truth construed differently by wise men, and thus lays the foundation from mutual understanding and dialogue among opponents. Then we present a detailed discussion of the two main principles of Gandhi’s philosophy: satya or Truth, and ahimsā or non-violence. The development of satyāgraha or nonviolent action to resolve social and political conflicts is Gandhi’s most important contribution to modern social psychology. Placing Gandhi’s work within the context of psychology, the concept of satyāgraha is examined in relation to psychoanalytic theory, reviewing in particular the work of Erik Erikson and Sudhir Kakar. The work of several other psychologists is also briefly reviewed along with a discussion of Gandhi’s style of leadership and organizational issues.

This paper presents an estimation of flank wear in face milling operations using radial basis function (RBF) networks. Various signals such as acoustic emission (AE), surface roughness, and cutting conditions (cutting speed and feed) have been used to estimate the flank wear. The hidden layer RBF units have been fixed randomly from the input data and using batch fuzzy C means algorithm, and a comparative study has been carried out. The results obtained from a fixed RBF network have been compared with those from a resource allocation network (RAN).

Monitoring the condition of the cutting tool in any machining operation is very important since it will affect the workpiece quality and an unexpected tool failure may damage the tool, workpiece and sometimes the machine tool itself. Advanced manufacturing demands an optimal machining process. Many problems that affect optimization are related to the diminished machine performance caused by worn out tools. One of the most promising tool monitoring techniques is based on the analysis of Acoustic Emission (AE) signals. The generation of the AE signals directly in the cutting zone makes them very sensitive to changes in the cutting process. Various approaches have been taken to monitor progressive tool wear, tool breakage, failure and chip segmentation while supervising these AE signals. In this paper, AE analysis is applied for tool wear monitoring in face milling operations. Experiments have been conducted on En-8 steel using uncoated carbide inserts in the cutter. The studies have been carried out with on...

This paper presents tool wear estimation in face milling operations using the resource allocation network (RAN). Acoustic emission (AE) signals, surface roughness parameters and cutting conditions (cutting speed, feed) have been used to formulate input patterns. The performance of RAN has been compared with the multi-layer perceptron (MLP) trained using back-propagation (BP) algorithm, and the results are presented.

There is voluminous literature on Advaita Vedānta available at different levels of scholarship. Much of it, however, is basically philosophical with a sprinkling of psychology here and there. We believe that psychological issues are at the base of Advaita and in a significant sense constitute its core. In this chapter we are attempting to convey psychological concepts and methods of Advaita with a focus on the concerns of modern psychology, and present them in contemporary language and idiom. Also, wherever appropriate, we will try to build conceptual bridges across disciplinary and cultural divides, and attempt interpretations rather than mere translations. The two topics at the very core of Advaita system are consciousness and the self. Centrality of consciousness in human condition is the defining characteristic of Indian psychology (Rao, 2004). They were also issues central to modern psychology as viewed by its founding fathers, Wilhelm Wundt in Germany and William James in America. However, with the advent of behaviourism, both these topics were virtually banished from psychology for decades. Such banishment turned out to be a relatively temporary aberration; both consciousness and self have returned to the re-drawn boundaries of psychology during the last few decades of the twentieth century. From a psychological point of view, there is more to Advaita than consciousness and self, since it offers a broad perspective on the nature of human beings, a perspective of the kind that modern psychologists call “theories of personality”. According to the Advaita, the person ( jīva ) is conceptualized as an individual who thinks, feels, and acts. As such, the individual is seen as being in possession of three fundamental capacities: cognition, emotion, and action.

Science and religion are generally considered to be disparate and inconsistent, if not conflicting, attempts at understanding reality. However, they need not be so considered. Spiritual psychology may be seen as a discipline that combines in its pursuit spirituality and science. We can conceive of spiritual psychology as a science in search of the sacred. Indian psychology derived and constructed from classical Indian philosophies of mind and practices like yoga, and parapsychology as pursued in the West provide indirect support to spiritual psychology. They suggest possible existence of paranormal sources of knowing and states of consciousness that transcend the cerebro-centric conception of human nature. A meta-theory of spiritual psychology and Indian psychology presented here shows the complementarity of science and spirituality. Some of the important conceptual and methodological issues in studies of spirituality and parapsychology are discussed. The implications of these for studying and understanding parapsychological phenomena are considered.