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Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis was used to examine genetic variation in semi-domestic herds of reindeer. Rangifer tarandus L. Samples of liver, skeletal muscle and blood from four different herds in southern Norway were sampled. The electrophoretic expression indicated 45 presumed loci, 34 of which were considered usable for population genetic surveys. Genetic variability was observed at 8 loci and the proportion of polymorphic loci varied between 0.118 and 0.176 by the 99% criterion for polymorphism. The within herd heterozygosity (H) varied between 0.017 and 0.030 with a mean of 0.022. The allele frequency distribution indicates little genetic heterogeneity, and less than 3% of the genetic variation in the polymorphic loci is attributable to differences between herds. No heterozygote deficiency was observed, suggesting that no inbreeding occurs.

The evaluation of the genetic structure of four native Norwegian horse breeds was investigated using 35 genetic markers including nine biochemical loci and 26 microsatellites. The proportion of genetic variation measured as heterozygosity and the number of alleles indicated high variation in Fjord Horse and Coldblooded Trotter, but somewhat reduced variation in Dole Horse. No clear signs of bottleneck effects were found in either of the breeds, but significant inbreeding estimates in Nordland/Lyngen Horse may indicate subdivision of this breed. Significant population differentiation was detected between all breeds, also between the recently diverged Dole Horse and Coldblooded Trotter. The principal component analysis supports the close genetic relationship between these two breeds. Zusammenfassung Die genetische Struktur von vier in Norwegen heimischen Pferderassen wurde mit Hilfe von 35 genetischen Markoren bestehend aus neun biochemischen Loci und 26 Mikrosatelliten untersucht. Der Umfang der genetischen Variation, gemessen als Heterozygozitat und Anzahl Allelen, deutet eine grosse Variation beim Norwegischen Fjordpferd und Kaltbluttraber an, aber eine geringere beim Dolepferd. In keine der Rassen wurden klare Anzeichen eines Flaschenhalseffektes gefunden, aber hohe Inzuchtschatzwerte des Nordland/Lyngenpferdes lassen eine Unterteilung dieser Rasse vermuten. Zwischen allen Rassen wurde signifikante Populationsunterschiede gefunden, auch zwischen den erst neulich getrennten Dolepferd und Kaltbluttraber. Die enge genetische Beziehung zwischen diesen beiden Rassen wird durch die Hauptkomponentenanalyse unterstutzt.

The pathogenesis of osteochondrosis (OC) and palmar/plantar first phalanx osteochondral fragments (POFs) is multifactorial, but specific knowledge of heritability is limited.To improve the precision of heritability estimates and to estimate the genetic correlation between tarsocrural OC and POFs in Standardbred trotters. Further aims were to examine whether the prevalence of OC/POFs was different in the American and French lineages that have contributed to the Norwegian population, and if the prevalence was affected by heterozygosity.Retrospective cohort study.Categorical data on tarsocrural OC and POFs from 2 radiographic studies performed in 1989 and 2007/2008 (n = 1217) were analysed with sire threshold models that included 230 sires.Heritability of OC at the distal intermediate ridge of the tibia and/or the lateral trochlear ridge of the talus was estimated at 0.29 ± 0.15. For OC at the distal intermediate ridge of the tibia only, the estimate was 0.40 ± 0.17. Heritability of POFs in all 4 limbs was estimated at 0.23 ± 0.13; for metatarsophalangeal POFs this was 0.26 ± 0.13 and for medial metatarsophalangeal POFs 0.32 ± 0.14. Estimates of genetic correlation between OC and POFs ranged from 0.68 ± 0.27 to 0.73 ± 0.28 but were not significantly different from a zero-genetic correlation. Effects of lineages or heterozygosity were not observed.This study confirmed a moderate to high heritability of tarsocrural OC and POF, providing further evidence of the heritable nature of these diseases. Examination of specific lesions yielded the highest heritability; therefore, breeding programmes and future genome-analysis studies should focus on predilection sites rather than the entire disease complex.

Knowledge about changes in behavioural traits related to wildness and tameness is for most mammals lacking, despite the increased trend of using domestic stock to re-establish wild populations into historical ranges. To test for persistence of behavioural traits of wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus L.) exposed to hunting, we sampled DNA, vigilance and flight responses in wild reindeer herds with varying domestic ancestry. Analyses of 14 DNA microsatellite loci revealed a dichotomous main genetic structure reflecting their native origin, with the Rondane reindeer genetically different from the others and with least differentiation towards the Hardangervidda reindeer. The genetic clustering of the reindeer in Norefjell-Reinsjøfjell, Ottadalen and Forollhogna, together with domestic reindeer, supports a predominant domestic origin of these herds. Despite extensive hunting in all herds, the behavioural measures indicate increasing vigilance, alert and flight responses with increasing genetic dissimilarity with domestic herds. Vigilance frequency and time spent vigilant were higher in Rondane compared to Hardangervidda, which again were higher than herds with a domestic origin. We conclude that previous domestication has preserved a hard wired behavioural trait in some reindeer herds exhibiting less fright responses towards humans that extensive hunting has, but only slightly, altered. This brings novel and relevant knowledge to discussions about genetic diversity of wildlife in general and wild reindeer herds in Norway in specific.

Serum samples from previous experiments were utilized to study the variation between sib families in serum iron concentration, and the association between serum iron concentration in the sib group and survival in challenge tests with vibriosis, furunculosis, cold water vibriosis or bacterial kidney disease (BKD) in farmed Atlantic salmon. In the first experiment, fish that diet from vibriosis had significantly higher serum iron concentration prior to the challenge test than surviving fish. No significant variation was found in serum iron concentration between 34 full-sib families or between 12 half-sib families, but a non-significant suggestion of negative correlations ( r = − 0.25, P = 0.15; r = −0.35, P = 0.27), was observed between least square means of serum iron concentration and survival rates from vibriosis in the sib families. Sexually maturing fish had significantly higher serum iron concentrations and lower survival rates than immatures. In the second experiment, 23 full-sib families showed a significant variation in serum iron concentration, and a non-significant suggestion of a negative correlation ( r = −0.34, P = 0.12) of about the same magnitude as in the first experiment was observed between full-sib least-square means for serum iron concentration and the survival rate of parallel full-sib families in a challenge test with cold water vibriosis. The corresponding correlations between serum iron levels and survival rates in challenge tests with furunculosis and BKD were both close to zero. The results from the two experiments taken together suggests that families with increased levels of serum iron may be more suceptible for Vibrio infections.

The influence of exposure to stressors on cortisol and the non-specific immune traits lysozyme and serum haemolytic activity were examined in second generation rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) selected for either high or low serum cortisol level following a confinement stress. Lysozyme and serum haemolytic activity were also assessed, together with levels of specific antibodies against Aeromonas salmonicida A-layer, Vibrio salmonicida O-antigen and Vibrio anguillarum O-antigen, following injection of vaccines against these pathogens. Significant differences in mean cortisol levels between the two selection lines were observed, but in only one of two stress experiments was the ‘high-stress’ line found to have the higher cortisol level; in the other experiment the ‘high-stress’ line had significantly lower cortisol levels than the ‘low-stress’ line. Lysozyme levels were in four of four assessments higher in the high-stress line than in the low-stress line, whereas components of serum haemolytic activity tended to be lower in the high-stress line than in the low-stress line. Levels of specific antibodies against all three bacterial pathogens were elevated following the injection of the vaccines. Only antibody production against A. salmonicida A-layer was significantly different between the two lines, the higher production of antibody being in the high-stress line.

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) yearling presmolts were reared under two different photoperiod regimes (simulated natural photoperiod, SNP, and continuous light, CL) and identical ambient temperature conditions from 21 November 1990 until 29 May 1991. Sampling was done biweekly from 21 February. Gill Na+,K+-ATPase activity increased under both photoperiod regimes from early April, concurrently with the increase in ambient temperature. The initial increase and final levels (29 May) in enzyme activity were much lower in the CL regime fish. Seawater challenge tests (24 h, 35 ppt) on 2 and 15 May resulted in lower plasma chloride levels in the SNP regime fish, indicating better hypo-osmoregulatory ability. This difference wasANNOUNCEMENT not present on 29 May. Resting plasma cortisol levels increased from March under both regimes, but the increase was much greater in the SNP regime fish (75 nm on 29 May v 22 nm in the CL regime). The individuals from the SNP regime were of lower weight and condition coefficient on 29 May, whereas length was uniform. Plasma lysozyme activity was unchanged throughout the sampling period, with the CL regime fish showing an overall higher activity. The in vitro leucocyte stimulation test did not indicate a reduced immune response in May in smolting fish exposed to the simulated natural photoperiod regime compared to fish reared under continuous light.

Lysozyme activity and spontaneous haemolytic activity (SH) were analysed in three repeat blood samples of n=960 fish from 34 full-sib groups within 12 paternal half-sib groups of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar. At the first and second blood-sampling, the fish were vaccinated with a combined fish vaccine. After the third sampling, the fish were challenged with the pathogenic bacterium Vibrio anguillarum. A statistically significant effect of sire on lysozyme activity, SH activity, and survival after vibriosis challenge was found, providing evidence of significant genetic variation in these traits. The estimated heritabilities were low to moderate (0.1–0.3) for the SH activity, and relatively low (

The activation or suppression of the non-specific immune system was investigated in Atlantic salmon infected with Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. salmonicida . Blood samples were collected from infected and non-infected individuals before exposure to A. salmonicida and at different times during the following 4 weeks. Changes in haematocrit values, serum levels of total protein and various immune parameters were observed in sera from diseased fish. The greatest changes were found in sera from fish with symptoms of acute furunculosis. In these sera, the levels of lysozyme as well as protease activity were significantly increased, while levels of serum proteins and protease inhibitor activity were significantly decreased as compared with non-infected control fish. Haematocrit levels were also decreased in blood samples from diseased fish. In fish that survived the infection, haemolytic activity of serum complement was significantly increased.

Two lines of Atlantic salmon, which had been selected for either high or low stress response following measurements of blood cortisol levels after a standardized stress, were challenged by three bacterial pathogens. The pathogenic agents were Aeromonas salmonicida , which causes furunculosis, Vibrio salmonicida , which causes cold-water vibriosis, and Renibacterium salmoninarum , which causes bacterial kidney disease (BKD). Following challenge with furunculosis bacteria, the mortality rates during the experiments, and the cumulative mortality at the end of the experiments, were significantly higher in the high than in the low stress response line of fish. In the course of the study it appeared that the fish challenged with cold-water vibriosis and BKD had also been previously infected with furunculosis bacteria. Following challenge with cold-water vibriosis, the high-stress line displayed a poorer performance than the low-stress line in this situation of double infection whereas there were no significant differences between the two lines following BKD challenge. The immunity of the parental generation of the challenged fish was assessed by measurements of serum haemolytic activity. The results indicated a significantly lowered immunity in fish of the high-stress response line.

Lysozyme activity in blood was analysed in full- and half-sib families of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss . 1075 fish from 80 full-sib groups within 30 paternal half-sib groups were sampled. The elapsed time between the initial crowding of fish for blood sampling and the collection of a blood sample from a particular fish, affected the lysozyme activity significantly. Statistically significant effects of sire on the lysozyme activity provide evidence of significant additive genetic variation in lysozyme activity in rainbow trout. The estimated heritabilities of the lysozyme activity were in the order of 0.2–0.3 with a standard error of approximately 0.05–0.15. Production parameters, such as mean weight at slaughter and mean survival during the sea-rearing period, were obtained for fish which were reared commercially and which belonged to the same full-sib groups as those analysed for lysozyme activity. The correlations between least squares means of lysozyme activity and production parameters, based on the full-sib records, were not significant.

Two lines of rainbow trout, selected for either high or low stress response as measured by blood cortisol levels, were challenged by two bacterial pathogens, Aeromonas salmonicida, causing furunculosis and Vibrio anguillarum, causing vibriosis. In both challenge experiments, the survival rates during the experiment, and the total accumulated mortality at termination of the experiment, were significantly different between the two lines. Whereas in the furunculosis challenge the death rate in the high-stress response line was higher than in the low-stress response line, the opposite was true for the vibriosis challenge. Two non-specific immune components were analysed in the challenged fish: serum haemolytic activity, which was higher in low-stress fish than in high-stress fish; and lysozyme, which had higher measures in high-stress fish. The results of the present study indicate that selection for stress response affects the disease resistance of rainbow trout, albeit not in an unambiguous direction in respect to different diseases.

Spontaneous and antibody-dependent haemolytic activity against sheep red blood cells (SRBC) has been studied in serum from Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. Considerable increase in haemolytic activity was detected when SRBC were sensitized with haemolysin produced in Atlantic salmon. Haemolytic activity was sensitive both to divalent cations and to heat treatment. Significant reduction in haemolytic activity was detected after absorption with SRBC, indicating the presence of natural antibody against SRBC in Atlantic salmon serum. Persistent haemolytic activity of unsensitized SRBC in serum absorbed to remove natural antibodies was found, which suggests the activation of the alternative complement pathway, while the observed increased haemolytic activity in the presence of specific antibody against SRBC suggests activation of the classical complement pathway. Spontaneous and antibody-dependent haemolytic activity were both analysed in absorbed and non-absorbed sera in a family material of Atlantic salmon. The material consisted of 574 fish belonging to 57 fullsib groups within 20 paternal halfsib groups. Fish with signs of sexual maturity generally showed reduced haemolytic activity. Statistically significant effect of sire on the spontaneous haemolytic activity of both absorbed and nonabsorbed serum, and on antibody-dependent activity, provides evidence of significant additive genetic variation in both the alternative and the classical complement activation in Atlantic salmon. Neither on a phenotypical nor on a family basis were the two traits statistically correlated. The estimated heritabilities were 0.2–0.3 with a standard error of approximately 0.1.

Traditional reindeer herding of northern Fennoscandia has been based on seasonal movements independent of national borders. At the beginning of the 19th century, these yearly movements of reindeer were excessive, but during that century the borders between the Fennoscandian countries were closed. By analysing a 190-base pair fragment of the mitochondrial DNA control region in 79 museum samples, we show that the reindeer of northern Fennoscandia were one homogenous population shortly after the national borders were closed. However, anthropogenic activity has effectively ended genetic exchange within northern Fennoscandia and has made the reindeer population within this region heterogeneous. Genetic input of eastern origin is also suggested within the extant Russian reindeer of the Kola Peninsula.

A Horse Is a Horse, of Course The history of horse domestication is closely tied to the history of the human society. Wade et al. (p. 865 ) report on the sequencing and provide a single nucleotide polymorphism map of the horse ( Equus caballus ) genome. Horses are a member of the order perissodactyla (odd-toed animals with hooves). The analysis reveals an evolutionarily new centromere on equine chromosome 11 that displays properties of an immature but fully functioning centromere and is devoid of centromeric satellite sequence. The findings clarify the nature of genetic diversity within and across horse breeds and suggest that the horse was domesticated from a relatively large number of females, but few males.

The results of blood cortisol assays of hatchery-reared families of Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar ) and rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss ) have led to the suggestion that there is a genetic basis for the response to stress. A selection programme that started in 1982 was aimed at establishing high and low cortisol response lines of the two species. The object is to reveal possible genetic linkages between stress response parameters and immune parameters in order to obtain an indirect measure for disease resistance. Analyses of blood sampled after exposing the F 1 generation to a standardized stressor showed that the Atlantic salmon stress response, in terms of plasma cortisol and glucose levels, was significantly different between the two lines. In rainbow trout, the differences between lines were less pronounced, but significant sire effects were revealed within and between the two lines, supporting the evidence of a genetic component to the stress response. The levels of lysozyme, a non-specific immune measure, were higher in the high cortisol stress response lines than in the low cortisol lines. In Atlantic salmon, mortality during the course of the study was significantly higher in the line selected for high cortisol stress response.

Haemolytic activity was analysed in sera from 202 rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). The material consisted of 20 full-sib groups within nine paternal half-sib groups. The fish were blood-sampled and individually carlin-tagged. Repeat blood-samples were taken 2 and 8 weeks after the first sampling. An increase in the antibody-dependent haemolytic activity and decrease in the non-specific haemolytic activity, from the first to the second sampling, indicated different activation patterns associated with these responses in rainbow trout. Both the antibody-dependent and the non-specific haemolytic activity showed statistically significant variation between families. The magnitude of the estimated heritabilities ranged from medium to relatively high.

Human populations of Central Asian origin have contributed genetic material to northern European populations. It is likely that migrating humans carried livestock to ensure food and ease transportation. Thus, eastern genes could also have dispersed to northern European livestock populations. Using microsatellite data, we here report that the essentially different genetic distances DA and (deltamu)2 and their corresponding phylogenetic trees show close associations between the Mongolian native horse and northern European horse breeds. The genetic distances between the northern European breeds and Standardbred/Thoroughbred, representing a southern-derived source of horses, were notably larger. We suggest that contribution of genetic material from eastern horses to northern European populations is likely to have occurred.

Assignment tests have been utilized to investigate population classification, measure genetic diversity and to solve forensic questions. Using microsatellite data from 26 loci genotyped in eight horse breeds we examined how population differentiation, number of scored loci, number of scored animals per breed and loci variability affected individual assignment precision applying log likelihood methods. We found that both genetic differentiation and number of scored loci were highly important for recognizing the breed of origin. When comparing two and two breeds, a proportion of 95% of the most differentiated breeds (0.200or = FSTor = 0.259) could be identified scoring only three loci, while the corresponding number was six for the least differentiated breeds (0.080or = FSTor = 0.139). An identical proportion of simulated breed crosses, differentiated from their parental breeds by FST estimates in the range 0.050-0.069, was identified when scoring 12 loci. This level of source identification was not obtained for the less differentiated breed crosses. The current data further suggested that population sample size and locus variability were not critical for the assignment precision as long as moderately large sample sizes (or = 20 animals per population) and fairly variable loci were used.

Population demarcation of eight horse breeds was investigated using genotype information of 306 horses from 26 microsatellite loci. The breeds include the indigenous Norwegian breeds Fjord Horse, Nordland/Lyngen Horse, Døle Horse and Coldblooded Trotter together with Icelandic Horse, Shetland Pony, Standardbred and Thoroughbred. Both phylogenetic analysis and a maximum likelihood method were applied to examine the potential for breed allocation of individual animals. The phylogenetic analysis utilizing simple allele sharing statistics revealed clear demarcation among the breeds; 95% of the individuals clustered together with animals of the same breed in the phylogenetic tree. Even breeds with a short history of divergence like Døle Horse and Coldblooded Trotter formed distinct clusters. Implementing the maximum likelihood method allocated 96% of the individuals to their source population, applying an assignment stringency of a log of the odds ratio larger than 2. Lower allocation stringency assigned nearly all the horses. Only three individuals were wrongly allocated a breed by both methods. In conclusion, the study demonstrates clear distinction among horse breeds, and by combining the two assignment methods breed allocation could be determined for more than 99% of the individuals.

The complete coding region of the melanocyte-stimulating hormone receptor (MC1-R) gene was characterized in species belonging to the two families Bovidae and Cervidae; cattle (Bos taurus), sheep (Ovis aries), goat (Capra hircus), muskox (Ovibos moschatus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), moose (Alces alces), red deer (Cervus elaphus) and fallow deer (Dama dama). This well conserved gene is a central regulator of mammalian coat colour. Examination of the interspecies variability revealed a 5.3-6.8% divergence between the Cervidae and Bovidae families, whereas the divergence within the families were 1.0-3.1% and 1.2-4.6%, respectively. Complete identity was found when two subspecies of reindeer, Eurasian tundra reindeer (R.t. tarandus) and Svalbard reindeer (R.t. platvrhynehus), were analyzed. An rooted phylogenetic tree based on Bovidae and Cervidae MC1-R DNA sequences was in complete agreement with current taxonomy, and was supported by bootstrapping analysis. Due to different frequencies of silent vs. replacement mutations, the amino acid based phylogenetic tree contains several dissimilarities when compared to the DNA based phylogenetic tree.

The possibility of using microsatellite primers developed in Bovidae to amplify microsatellite markers in Cervidae was surveyed by using 75 microsatellite primer sets of bovine, ovine or caprine origin to analyse DNA from moose, red deer, reindeer and roe deer from Scandinavia. On average for the four cervids, approximately 50% of the ovine/caprine primer pairs amplified a specific PCR product, compared to only 16% of the bovine primers. Approximately 50% of both ovine/caprine and bovine primers that amplified a specific product were polymorphic, giving 15 polymorphic microsatellite markers in moose, 11 in red deer, 21 in reindeer and 10 in roe deer. Reindeer had a higher proportion of polymorphic loci, more alleles per locus and higher mean heterozygosity than the other cervids.

The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a system of closely linked genes showing an extremely high degree of polymorphism. These genes are major elements in the government of specific immune reactions. Consequently they may represent a genetic marker system well suited to investigate variability in selective pressure from disease agents on different populations. On this background we have started investigation of the MHC complex in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus L). The MHC complex consist of polymorphic regions as well as regions conserved during evolution which should allow the use of cross-species reagents. We have shown that human MHC gene probes hybridize with genomic DNA from reindeer, and thus can be used as a tool in reindeer MHC research. By RFLP (restriction fragment length polymorphism) analysis using these probes we have also been able to show polymorphism in MHC related genes from reindeer.

The long-term effects of different cadmium (0.2 and 0.4 ppm) and salinity levels (30, 25, and 20 ‰ S) on growth and egg-mass production ofOphryotrocha labronica (La Greca & Bacci) were investigated over three generations. Low salinity levels and the presence of cadmium resulted in reduced growth rates, prolonged times to reach sexual maturity, and reduced size at maturity. Three-way analysis of variance showed significant interaction effects of generation and cadmium for the different growth processes tested. Using response-surface methods, 0.2 ppm cadmium was shown to have a greater effect on growth rate at the third generation than the first and second generations at the three salinities tested. Increased effects were observed from first to second generation at 0.4 ppm cadmium and 30 and 25 ‰ S, whereas effects decreased from second to third generation. At 0.4 ppm cadmium and salinity of 20 ‰ the first generation was not able to produce viable larvae.

Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis was used to analyse transferrin variation in caribou from the Canadian Arctic islands. Sixteen alleles were detected in Peary caribou (Rangifer tarandus pearyi). The most common allele was TfG2, which increased in frequency from 0.167 at the Boothia Peninsula to 0.236 in the Peel population and 0.340 in the Parry population. The presence of this allele, which is the most common allele in Svalbard reindeer (R. t. platyrhynchus) and not detected in Norwegian reindeer (R. t. tarandus), suggests a common origin for the Peary caribou and the Svalbard reindeer. The large genetic distance in the transferrin locus between continental and island populations suggests the isolation of a High Arctic population in a northern refugium during the Wisconsin glaciation.

Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis was used to score for genetic variation in 35 loci in Svalbard reindeer, Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus, and in reindeer, Rangifer tarandus tarandus, from two localities in northern Norway. In R. t. platyrhynchus the proportion of polymorphic loci was 0.114 and the average heterozygosite was 0.030. In R. t. tarandus the proportion of polymorphic loci was 0.171–0.286 and the average heterozygosity was 0.043–0.045. Excluding the variability in the locus coding for transferrin from calculations reduced the average heterozygosity to 0.020 in R. t. platyrhynchus and to 0.021–0.025 in R. t. tarandus, suggesting that the amount of genetic variation in R. t. platyrhynchus is not very different from that in R. t. tarandus. Unique alleles in the loci coding for transferrin and acid phosphatase for the two subspecies indicate that there has been no interbreeding in recent time. The genetic distance between the two subspecies is within the same range as between subspecies of other organisms. Evolutionary divergence time based on the protein data indicates that either the divergence between these subspecies was initiated a very long time ago or R. t. platyrhynchus originates from other subspecies of reindeer.

Blood samples from 928 reindeer from five semi-domestic and three wild populations of reindeer, Rangifer tarandus L., from southern Norway were analysed for transferrin variability by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. A total of 12 alleles were detected, and in all populations the number of alleles was high, ranging from eight to eleven. The mean value of heterozygosities was approximately the same for semi-domestic (0.778) and wild (0.770) populations. The pattern of allele frequency distribution indicates a high degree of genetic heterogeneity in the transferrin locus and each population revealed significant differences for at least one allele between all pairs of combinations. Using a hierarchical approach, 45% of the heterogeneity between populations was explained by dividing into semi-domestic and wild animals. The major contributor to the divergence was the Tfct allele which changed in frequency from a mean (±SD) of 0.331 (±0.040) in semidomestic herds, to 0.167 (±0.045) in wild populations. These results suggest that the different selection strategies in the management of semi-domestic and wild reindeer influence the transferrin allele frequencies.

By the use of isoelectric focusing in polyacrylamide gels serum samples from 146 Alaskan wolves were studied with regard to transferrin (Tf) and esterase (ArE) polymorphism, comparing the phenotypic band patterns with those of selected Norwegian dogs. The study revealed Tf and ArE polymorphisms in the wolf with phenotypic band patterns being indistinguishable from the corresponding ones in dogs. This suggests the occurrence of the same two common Tf alleles in the wolf as in the dog. In the ArE system the results are consistent with the occurrence of three alleles which also occur in dogs whereas a fourth allele, so far not seen in dogs, is seen in Alaskan wolves.

Genetic variability and population structure in the endangered peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) were studied using DNA microsatellite markers. Special emphasis was placed on the subspecies F. p. peregrinus living in Scandinavia and Scotland. For comparative purposes, three North American peregrine subspecies (F. p. tundrius, F. p. pealei and F. p. anatum) and one Tasmanian subspecies (F. p. macropus) were included in this analysis. Twelve DNA microsatellite loci were analysed across a total of 146 individuals. The amount of genetic variation did not differ in peregrine populations for which adequate sample sizes were obtained. Within F. p. peregrinus, significant genetic differentiation was found between populations in northern and southern Scandinavia and between the Scandinavian and Scottish populations, while the populations in south-eastern Norway and south-western Sweden did not differ significantly. Analysis of cliff-nesting peregrines in northern Sweden and bog-nesting peregrines in northern Finland/Sweden suggests that the difference in nesting habitat is not associated with genetic differentiation. Population structuring in F. p. peregrinus is further supported by an assignment test, wherein simulated genotypes are correctly assigned to the northern and southern Scandinavian and Scottish populations with relatively high probabilities, and by analysis of allele-sharing among individuals. Cluster analysis of genetic distances grouped populations of peregrines in accordance with their subspecific designation, and peregrines on either side of the Atlantic Ocean were clearly separated.