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The wild edible mushrooms are often used by people who live around the PNFM of Togo. To know better the ecto-mycorrhizal taxa used and to document the endogenous knowledge, surveys on ethno-mycological knowledge were conducted in the city of Bassar from the ethnic group of Bassar and in the village of Hezoudè from Kabyè ethnic group. During this study, based on semi-structural ethno-mycological survey, 432 people aged 10 to 80 years from the Kabyè and Bassar areas are interviewed via focus group and/or individual interviews. After ethno-mycological investigations, 23 taxa are known as edible. The ethno-mycological indices such as Use Value (UV), Index of Fisher (p) and Index of Importance Value (IVI) are calculated to test the knowledge on the different use of mushrooms by the two ethnic groups. The study revealed that there is no significant difference regarding the number of consumed taxa for each ethnic group and the levels of their traditional knowledge. The study also showed that the traditional ethno-mycological knowledge of the population varies according to age, the ethnical group and sex. The elders are proven to be the holders of the best mycological knowledge. The most ecto-mycorrhizal mushrooms consumed are Amanita loosii, Russula oleifera and Cantharellus congolensis. These preliminary data indicate that the ecto-mycorrhizal mushrooms and their uses are well known by the people who live around the PNFM.

This study was aimed at identifying and documenting medicinal plants used as medicines in the traditional treatment of infections of the digestive tract (diarrhea, oral thrush and anites) by traditional healers in the central region of Togo. The data were collected by semi-structured interviews method from 45 traditional practitioners. This study identified 61 plants species, from 54 genera and 26 botanical families. The most represented families were Fabaceae (9 genera / 9 species), Asteraceae (5/5), Combretaceae (4/5), Moraceae (2/5) and Euphorbiaceae (4/4). The most cited species are: Parkia biglobosa (Frequency of Citation = Frequency of citation = 12.92%), Pteleopsis suberosa (Frequency of Citation = 8.31%), Maytenus senegalensis (Frequency of Citation = 8.31%), Anchomanes difformis (Frequency of Citation = 7.38%) and Hymenocardia acida (Frequency of Citation = 4.37%). Sixty-seven percent (67%) of the identified plants are used in the treatment of childhood diarrhea. The leaves (30%) are the most used plant parts followed by stem barks. The decoction (59%) is the most used mode of preparation. The oral route (66%) remains the main route of administration of the phytomedicines. The medicinal plants are important in the traditional treatment of childhood infections in the central region of Togo. It is therefore necessary to investigate the effectiveness and toxicity of these plants for a better traditional use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dioscorea praehensilis Benth. make up an important yam that contributes to food security and poverty alleviation in some countries of west and central Africa. In spite of its huge economic potential and as a source of food security, D. praehensilis locally called bayere still remains an underutilized in Togo. This study was carried out to assess the diversity within the cultivated D. praehensilis, analyze its distribution, document it's socio-cultural, economic and food values, farmer's practices of diversity management. Ethnobotanical semi-structured individual and focus group interviews were carried out with producers of D. praehensilis and supplemented by field observations. Producers of D. praehensilis were surveyed in 34 villages. Data were analysed through descriptive statistics to generate summaries figures and tables at different levels. Altogether, informants described four cultivated types of D. praehensilis; white bayere, yellow bayere, black bayere and red bayere. These cultivated yams were obtained after transplantation and culture of wild plants in home gardens and agroforests or their preservation in agroforests. White bayere is present in all surveyed producers while the other four are reported in less than 50% of respondents. Bayere are cultivated in home gardens (45%) and agroforests (55%). Several farmers' practices of bayere management are developed. The most common practices to maintain bayere diversity are the heritage of seeds (70%), the gift (28%) and purchase (1.2%). The strategy adopted by farmers to preserve the purity of the bayere is its tubers cuttings. Peasant's preference criteria of types are mainly agronomic and dietary. Factors such as good culinary characteristics (100%), high yield (100%), and seed generation capacity (65%) are important criteria for selection of type and their continual cultivation. Low market quality (34%), difficult harvest (25%), lack of seed (23%), maladjustment in dry areas (25%), reduction of the forest (24%), loss of the cultural values (20%), schooling of young people (21%) were major determinant of bayere neglect and contribute bayere to the loss of diversity. This neglected species is part of a rich economic, biological, social and cultural local diversity, and has the potential to play a much more important role than they do today in sustaining livelihoods and human wellbeing and in enhancing ecosystem health and stability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hyperreactive onchocerciasis (HO) is characterized by a severe skin inflammation with elevated Th17-Th2 combined responses. We previously demonstrated the anthelminthic activity of Aframomum melegueta (AM), Xylopia aethiopica (XA) and Khaya senegalensis (KS) used by traditional healers to treat helminthiasis in the endemic area of Togo. However, their effect on severe onchocerciasis is poorly investigated. The present study aimed to investigate the anti-Th17 and anti-Th2 effects of hydro-ethanolic extracts of AM, XA and KS during HO. Onchocerca volvulus-infected individuals were recruited in the Central region of Togo in 2018. Isolated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from both generalized onchocerciasis (GEO) and HO forms were activated with anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 monoclonal antibodies in the presence or absence of the hydro-ethanolic extracts of AM, XA and KS as well as their delipidated, deproteinized and deglycosylated fractions. After 72 hours, cytokines were assayed from cell culture supernatants. Then, flow cytometry was used to investigate the effects of the extracts on cell activation, proliferation, intracellular cytokines and T cells transcription factors. The production of both Th17 and Th2 cytokines IL-17A and IL-5 were significantly inhibited upon T-cell receptor (TCR) activation in the presence of the hydro-ethanolic extracts of AM, XA and KS in HO individuals' PBMCs in vitro. AM and XA inhibited CD4+RORC2+IL-17A+ and CD4+GATA3+IL-4+ cell populations induction. This inhibition was not Th1 nor Treg-dependent since both IFN-γ and IL-10 were also inhibited by the extracts. AM and XA did not interfere with T cell activation and proliferation for their inhibitory pathways. Lipid and protein compounds from AM and XA were associated with the inhibition of IL-17A. This study showed that in addition to their anthelminthic effects, hydro-ethanolic extracts of Aframomum melegueta, Xylopia aethiopica and Khaya senegalensis could downregulate both Th17 and Th2 responses and prevent the severe skin disorder observed., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Background: Traditional medicines are the main source of treatment of helminthiasis in endemic areas of Togo. The present study aimed to investigate the plants used by Traditional healers (THs) to treat helminth infections in endemic communities within the Central and Kara regions of Togo and to evaluate the anthelmintic activity of the three most cited plants., Methods: An ethnobotanical survey was conducted from 19 to 24 June 2017 among traditional healers in the Central and Kara regions of Togo. The anthelmintic activity of the most cited plants namely Aframomum melegueta K. Schum, Khaya senegalensis A. Juss and Xylopia aethiopica A. Rich, was evaluated using microfilariae (Mf) of Litomosoides sigmodontis. The plants were evaluated for cytotoxicity according to the recommendation of NF EN ISO 10993-5 standard using the propidium iodide (PI) dye by flow cytometry on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells., Results: A total of 197 THs were interviewed and 41 plant species were recorded. Leguminosae (14.6%) and Annonaceae (9.7%) families constitute the highest number of species cited for treatment of helminth infections. Afromomum melegueta was the most cited by the THs for the treatment of onchocerciasis (UV = 0.036) while X. aethiopica was associated with the treatment of schistosomiasis (UV = 0.061) and lymphatic filariasis (UV = 0.061). There was a great agreement among the THs regarding ethnomedicinal uses of plants to treat helminthiasis with ICF values ranging from 0.57 to 0.67. The anthelmintic assay yielded lethal doses values of 233 μg/mL, 265 μg/mL and 550 μg/mL, respectively for X. aethiopica, A. melegueta and K. senegalensis. Afromomum melegueta and X. aethiopica presented no cytotoxicity, less than 20% death, whereas K. senegalensis induced moderate toxicity, 24 ± 8% death., Conclusion: This study demonstrated the scientific rationale for the use of plants to treat helminthiasis in the Togolese traditional medicine. However, the use of K. senegalensis requires more caution since the plant is fairly toxic., Trial Registration: NA.

Ethnopharmacological Relevance: Pterocarpus erinaceus has been chosen based on ethnobotanical surveys carried out in the Tchamba district of the Republic of Togo., Aim of the Study: Investigation of the antibacterial as well as cytotoxic activities of whole extracts, fractions and compounds isolated from the leaves, trunk bark and roots of Pterocarpus erinaceus., Materials and Methods: Bio-guided fractionation of the raw extracts of plant parts and subsequent isolation of compounds from active fractions using normal phase open column chromatography. The broth microdilution method was used to evaluate the antibacterial activity, based on the determination of Minimal Inhibitory Concentrations (MICs) against several bacterial species representative of the most commonly encountered infectious diseases worldwide. The cytotoxicity of the raw extract and the most active fractions on a human non-cancerous cell (namely MRC-5) was estimated with a MTT assay. The chemical structure of the compounds isolated was elucidated using a combination of advanced Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and Mass Spectrometry (MS)., Results: All extracts and fractions tested have shown good activities against Gram-positive bacteria (including Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus, MRSA) and against Pseudomonas aeruginosa with MIC values ranging from 32µg/mL to 256µg/mL. In contrast, extracts were not toxic to MRC-5 cells. Four compounds have been isolated: Compound 1 (friedeline); Compound 2 (2,3 dihydroxypropyloctacosanoate); Compound 3 (a mixture of β-sitosterol, stigmasterol and campesterol); Compound 4 (β-sitosteryl-β-D-glucopyranoside) and shown to be active against some of the bacteria tested. They were active with MIC equal to 4µg/mL against strains of S. aureus (including MRSA). To the best of our knowledge, all of them except friedeline have never been reported in this plant species., Conclusion: P. erinaceus is confirmed as a plant harboring promising antibacterial activity with activities against serious human pathogens at very low concentrations. Some of the compounds isolated are also active at concentrations as low as 4µg/mL and therefore, may provide new leads for the development of antibacterial agents., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: Holarrhena floribunda is a plant of wide usage in the Togolese folk medicine. A previous ethnobotanical survey on the latex plants of the Maritime region of the country revealed that this plant was included in several recipes curing malaria and microbial infections. Therefore, this study aimed to seek for the effectiveness of the ethanolic extract of the plant in the treatment of these diseases., Methods: The antimicrobial test was performed using the agar well-diffusion and the NCCLS broth microdilution methods, while the in vivo antimalarial activity was evaluated following the four-day suppressive test of Peters. The acute toxic effects of the extract were monitored after a single oral dose (5,000 mg/kg body weight) administration in NMRI mice., Results: The results indicated that the ethanolic extract of leaves of H. floribunda was active on Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213 and clinical strains of Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi and Klebsiella pneumoniae with MICs ranging from 0.62 to 1.25 mg/mL. The extract also showed significant parasitaemia suppression in a dose-dependent manner. In the acute toxicity assay, the oral administration of the extract to the mice did not affect the relative weight of vital organs, and there were no signs of toxicity or death during the study period. The LD50 of the tested extract was found to be greater than 5,000 mg/kg, indicating its safety., Conclusion: This study demonstrates the antibacterial and antimalarial activities of leaves of H. floribunda and then, supports its medicinal use in the treatment of microbial infections.

Background: Asthma is one of the most common chronic diseases in modern society and it is evident that its incidence and severity are increasing, however very little is known about the plants used in the management of the disease. This study therefore aimed to document the plants usage in the Togolese traditional medicine to treat asthma., Methodology: From January to June 2015, an ethnobotanical survey was conducted using a semi-structured questionnaire with traditional healers (THs) in the southern region of Togo. The importance of the plants species was assessed by the calculated use values., Results: In Total, 121 THs (92 males and 29 females) were interviewed and 98 plants species belonging to 54 families were identified as curing asthma. The most represented families were: Leguminosae with 7 species followed by Euphorbiaceae and Rutaceae contributing with 6 and 5 species respectively. Based on the calculated use values the most important species were Carcica papaya L., Cataranthus roseus L., Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh., Piper guineense Thonn., Eucalyptus citriodora Hook., Eucalyptus globules Labill. and Euphorbia hirta L. The leaves and the root were the parts predominantly used to prepare the formulations, mainly decoctions, administrated by oral route. Clinical manifestations such as wheezing (91.74%), difficulty as speaking or coughing (73.55%), dyspnea (66.94%), dry cough (52.89%), sweating and increased heart rate (52.07%) were used by TH to diagnose the disease., Conclusion: This study showed initial evidence of the use of plant materials by Togolese TH to heal asthma. These results could be a starting point for laboratory screenings.

Numerous plants are known to exhibit considerable biological activities in the fields of medicine and agriculture, yet access to their active ingredients is often complicated, cumbersome and expensive. As a consequence, many plants harbouring potential drugs or green phyto-protectants go largely unnoticed, especially in poorer countries which, at the same time, are in desperate need of antimicrobial agents. As in the case of plants such as the Jericho tomato, Solanum incanum, and the common African tree Pterocarpus erinaceus, nanosizing of original plant materials may provide an interesting alternative to extensive extraction and isolation procedures. Indeed, it is straightforward to obtain considerable amounts of such common, often weed-like plants, and to mill the dried material to more or less uniform particles of microscopic and nanoscopic size. These particles exhibit activity against Steinernema feltiae or Escherichia coli, which is comparable to the ones seen for processed extracts of the same, respective plants. As S. feltiae is used as a model nematode indicative of possible phyto-protective uses in the agricultural arena, these findings also showcase the potential of nanosizing of crude "waste" plant materials for specific practical applications, especially-but not exclusively-in developing countries lacking a more sophisticated industrial infrastructure.

Ethnopharmacological Relevance: In Togo, many persons still rely on plants for healing, however very little is known about the medicinal practices of the indigenous people. The present study aimed to document the medicinal plant utilization for the management of liver diseases in the Maritime region of the country., Methodology: This was an ethnobotanical survey conducted in the Maritime region of Togo from June to August 2015. The data were gathered from 104 traditional healers (TH) by direct interviews using a semi-structured questionnaire. The calculated use values (UV) were used to analyze the importance of the cited plants., Results: A total of 99 plant species belonging to 88 genera and 49 families were cited by the TH as curing the hepatic diseases. The most represented families were Caesalpiniaceae with 8 species, followed by Euphorbiaceae with 7 species, Apocynaceae and Asteraceae with 6 species each. The highest UV were recorded with Gomphrena celosioides (0.13), Xylopia ethiopica (0.12), Senna occidentalis (0.12), Bridelia ferruginea (0.12), Cymbopogon citratus (0.12), Kigellia Africana (0.09), Cassia sieberiana (0.08) and Sanseviera liberica (0.08), showing their importance in the management of liver dysfunction in the surveyed region. The main used parts were the leaves, followed by the roots, the whole plant, the rhizome and the bark, accounting for more than 10% each. The herbal medicines were mostly prepared in the form of decoction and administrated by oral route., Conclusion: This study showed that Maritime region of Togo has an important plant biodiversity that is exploited by the indigenous TH. However, some plants cited by the TH have not been studied for their possible hepatoprotective effects. These plants are therefore a starting point for biological screenings., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: In Togo, a little is known about latex plants of the flora used for medicinal purposes., Objective: The aim of this study was to identify the latex plant species and their medicinal uses in the Maritime Region of Togo., Materials and Methods: The methodology was based on ethnobotanical semi-structural individual interviews of 220 informants. Quantitative ethnobotanical index was used to analyze the data., Results: A total of 33 latex plants species were recorded, from 12 botanical families and 24 genera. The most represented families were Euphorbiaceae and Moraceae with eight species each. The relative importance (RI) value of each species and the informant consensus factor (ICF) of the ailments categories showed that Pergularia daemia (Forssk.) Chiov. (RI = 2.00) and Euphorbia hirta L. (RI = 1.91) were the most versatile in relation to their uses, and infectious diseases (ICF = 0.922) were the category with the greatest consensus among 17 categories., Conclusion: These latex plants of Togolese flora are variously used in traditional medicine and it would be important to undertake further investigations in phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology to validate their uses. Abbreviations Used: UV: use value ICF: informant consensus factor RI: relative importance PP: pharmacological properties attributed to a species for a specific ailments AC: ailment categories treated by a given species.

Background: In Togo, malaria constitutes a major public health problem but, until now, the population still mostly relies on herbal medicine for healing. This study aimed to document medicinal plants used for malaria therapy in the Plateau region of the country., Methodology: Semi-structured questionnaire interviews were used to gather ethnobotanical and sociodemographic data from traditional healers of the study area., Results: A total of 61 plants species belonging to 33 families were found to be in use for malaria therapy in the Plateau region. Caesalpiniaceae were the most represented family with 7 species, followed by Euphorbiaceae and Poaceae with 4 species each. According to the relative frequency of citation (RFC), Newbouldia laevis Seem. (RFC =0.52), Sarcocephalus latifolius (Sm.) E.A. Bruce (RFC =0.48), Acanthospermum hispidum DC. (RFC =0.43), and Senna siamea (Lam.) H.S. Irwin and Barneby (RFC =0.40) were the most cited in the treatment of malaria in the traditional medicine in the Plateau region. The parts of plants used could either be the barks, roots, leaves, or whole plants. The recipes also could be a combination of various species of plants or plant parts., Conclusion: This study highlights the potential sources for the development of new antimalarial drugs from indigenous medicinal plants found in the Plateau region of Togo. Such results could be a starting point for in vitro antimalarial screenings., Summary: 61 plants species from 33 families are use for malaria therapy in the Plateau region of TogoThe main families are Caesalpiniaceae Euphorbiaceae and PoaceaeThe most used species are Newbouldia laevis Seem. (RFC = 0.52), Sarcocephalus latifolius (Sm.) E.A. Bruce (RFC = 0.48), Acanthospermum hispidum DC. (RFC = 0.43), and Senna siamea (Lam.) H.S. Irwin and Barneby (RFC = 0.40) Abbreviations Used: RFC: Relative frequency of citation, FC: Frequency of citation, Dec: Decoction, Orl: Oral route, Mac: Maceration, Jui: Juice, Inf: Infusion, Sau: Sauce, Kne: Kneading, Le: Leaves, Rt: Roots, Wp: Whole plant, St: Stem, Stb: Stem bark, Rh: Rhizome, Fr: Fruits, Pf: Plasmodium falciparum, IC50: Concentration of extract killing 50% parasites.

Background: Plant-based remedies continue to play a key role in the health care of people in Togo; however, there is a lack of published data in medicinal plants and medical practices of the people in the country., Objective: This study was aimed at documenting the plant utilization in the Tem folk medicine in the central region of Togo., Materials and Methods: An ethnobotanical survey was conducted with traditional healers in the central region of Togo using a semi-structured questionnaire., Results: This study demonstrated that local specialists in the central region of Togo tend to agree with each other in terms of the plants used to treat diabetes (ICF = 0.38), infertility, and abdominal pains (ICF = 0.33), but cite a much more diverse groups of plants to treat problems related to arterial hypertension, sickle cell disease, and abscess. They use 144 herbal concoctions made of 72 plants, distributed among 36 botanical families. The Euphorbiaceae family with eight species was best represented in terms of the number of species. The species with the highest use value were Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss. (Meliaceae) (UV = 0.36), Anthocleista djalonensis A. Chev. (Gentianaceae) (UV = 0.27), Trichilia emetica Vahl (Meliaceae) (UV = 0.25), and Sarcocephalus latifolius (Sm.) E. A. Bruce (Rubiaceae) (UV = 0.21). They also rely on the timing in the plant processing and the administration of herbal remedies., Conclusion: All these findings are based on empirical observations; laboratory screenings are needed to check the effectiveness of these plants.

Context: The Tem tribe in the Central Region of Togo is a population with an extensive knowledge of medicinal plants. However, little is known about their medical practices, principally the use of plants in the management of diabetes mellitus (DM) and hypertension (HTN)., Objective: The present study documented the indigenous medicinal plant utilization for the management of DM and HTN in the Togo Central Region., Methodology: From March to October 2010, 55 traditional healers were interviewed about their knowledge on the use of plants for DM and HTN treatment., Results: The results revealed that 35/55 (63.64%) healers had treated at least one case of DM and/or HTN. They highlighted the use of 64 species belonging to 31 families in the treatment of DM and/or HTN. The most used plants against diabetes were Psidium guajava L. (Myrtaceae), Khaya senegalensis A. Juss. (Meliaceae), Sarcocephalus latifolius (Sm.) E.A. Bruce (Rubiaceae), Annona muricata L. (Annonaceae), Bridelia ferruginea Benth. (Phyllanthaceae), and Securidaca longepedunculata Fresen. (Polygalacae), while Allium sativum L. (Liliaceae) and Parkia biglobosa Benth. (Fabaceae), followed by Khaya senegalensis A. Juss. (Meliaceae), Gardenia ternifolia Schumach. (Rubiaceae), and Persea americana Mill. (Lauraceae) were the most commonly cited as antihypertensive., Conclusion: The issue revealed that traditional healers of the above mentioned region have basic knowledge regarding herbal medicine for DM and HTN in comparison with previous published reports. Further pharmacological screening of the identified plants should be conducted to ascertain the effectiveness of these plants.

In Africa, up to 80% of the population relies on herbal concoctions for their primarily health care. In Togo, western Africa, Tem tribe is a population with old knowledge of medicinal plants, however, still very little is known about their medical practices. The present study was conducted to access for the apprehension of adverse effects of traditional remedies by Tem traditional healers (TH). Enquiry was performed by interviews with healers from August to October 2007 in Tchaoudjo prefecture (Togo). The study allowed us to interview 54 TH including 41(75.93%) males and 13(24.07%) females, who cited 102 recipes assumed to have adverse effects. The recipes were used alone to cure several diseases including haemorrhoids (22.55%), female sexual disorders and infertility (21.57%), gastrointestinal disorders (18.63%), and malaria (6.86%). A total of 34 plants belonging to 21 families were cited to be components of the recipes. Euphorbiaceae and Mimosaceae families were the most represented, however, Nauclea latifolia, Khaya senegalensis, Pseudocedrela kotschyi and Xeroderris stuhlmannii were the main components of recipes linked to adverse effects. A total of 20 adverse effects were linked to the administration of theses drugs, and among them; diarrhoea, abdominal pains, polyuria, general weakness and vomiting were the most frequently encountered. These findings were in accordance with several reports of the literature concerning medicinal plants, although they were based on empirical observations. Laboratory screenings are needed to access for the effectiveness as well as the possible toxic effects of the recipes.

Five species of Combretaceae growing in Togo were investigated for their antifungal activity against 20 pathogenic fungi (10 yeast and 10 filamentous fungi). The five hydroethanolic extracts of Terminalia glaucescens and Anogeissus leiocarpus appeared to be the most active, their MICs ranging from 0.25 mg/ml to 4 mg/ml. The results confirm the traditional therapeutic properties of these plants.