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Polistine wasps collect nectar for their energetic demand and for the provision of the brood. They are mainly ectothermic during different behavioral tasks. We investigated the body temperature of two species living in differing habitats and climate regions, in order to reveal the environmental influence on their thermoregulatory behavior. The species were Polistes dominula in the temperate climate of Central Europe, and Polistes gallicus in the warm Mediterranean climate of Southern Europe. The wasp’s body temperature was measured during foraging on lovage (Levisticum officinale) and fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) by infrared thermography in the entire ambient temperature range they are usually exposed to (Ta ~ 20–40 °C). The temperature of all body parts increased nearly linearly with ambient temperature, with the thorax as the warmest part. To achieve optimal foraging temperatures, they preferably use solar radiation. An “operative temperature model” enabled the evaluation of the endothermic effort. Polistes dominula foraging on lovage exhibited no endothermic activity. However, while foraging on fennel they had a weak and almost constant endothermic performance of about 1 °C. Polistes gallicus, by contrast, exhibited mostly no or only minor endothermy during foraging. Both wasps avoid a high energetic effort and this way reduce their foraging costs.

The European paper wasp, Polistes dominulus Christ, is an abundant wasp species in South and Central Europe which dispersed to the north in recent times. Polistes dominulus exhibits an energy-extensive mode of life, spending much time resting at the nest, which should be reflected in adaptations regarding gas exchange and standard metabolism. We analysed the resting metabolism (CO2 emission) of Polistes dominulus workers in the ambient temperature range an individual may be exposed to during a breeding season (T a = 2.4–40.6 °C) via flow through respirometry. Behaviour and endothermic activity were assessed by infrared thermography. With rising T a, CO2 release followed an exponential increase from 27 to 149 and 802 nl g−1 min−1 at T a = 3, 20 and 35 °C, respectively. Measurements of the thermal regime at the nest showed that resting P. dominulus are most of the time in the lower range of their standard metabolic curve. A comparison with a “highly energetic” wasp like Vespula sp. revealed that Polistes dominulus not only optimises behaviour but also reduces metabolism to save energy. The CO2 emission patterns changed with ambient temperature, from discontinuous (≤25 °C) to cyclic (25–36 °C) and continuous gas exchange at higher temperatures. A pronounced break appeared in the data progression regarding cycle frequency and CO2 emission per gas exchange cycle between 15 and 10 °C. This striking change in gas exchange features indicates a physiological adaptation to special respiratory requirements at low temperatures.

We investigated the respiration patterns of wasps (Vespula sp.) in their viable temperature range (2.942.4 C) by measuring CO2 production and locomotor and endothermic activity. Wasps showed cycles of an interburstburst type at low ambient temperatures (Ta < 5 C) or typical discontinuous gas exchange patterns with closed, flutter and open phases. At high Ta of >31 C, CO2 emission became cyclic. With rising Ta they enhanced CO2-emission primarily by an exponential increase in respiration frequency, from 2.6 mHz at 4.7 C to 74 mHz at 39.7 C. In the same range of Ta CO2 release per cycle decreased from 38.9 to 26.4 l g1 cycle1. A comparison of wasps with other insects showed that they are among the insects with a low respiratory frequency at a given resting metabolic rate (RMR), and a relatively flat increase of respiratory frequency with RMR. CO2 emission was always accompanied by abdominal respiration movements in all open phases and in 71.4% of the flutter phases, often accompanied by body movements. Results suggest that resting wasps gain their highly efficient gas exchange to a considerable extent via the length and type of respiration movements.

Vespine wasps are known for their high endothermic capacity. Endothermic activity is directly linked to respiration. However, knowledge on wasp respiration is sparse and almost nothing is known about their resting metabolism. We investigated the yellowjackets CO2 production in a flow-through respirometer chamber overnight. Endothermic and behavioral activity was observed by real-time infrared thermography. Most resting wasps were ectothermic or only slightly endothermic (thoracic temperature excess against abdomen < 0.6 C). In the investigated temperature range (Ta = 2.942.4 C) mean CO2 production rate of resting wasps increased steeply according to an exponential function, from 5.658 l g1 min1 at 8.3 C to 8.504 l g1 min1 at 20.2 C, 58.686 l g1 min1 at 35.3 C and 102.84 l g1 min1 at 40 C. The wasps respiratory critical thermal maximum (CTmax), marking the upper edge of their viable temperature range, was 45.3 C. The respiratory CTmax did not differ significantly from the activity CTmax of 44.9 C. CTmax values were considerably below that of honeybees (48.9 and 49.0 C for respiration and activity, respectively). This allows honeybees to kill wasps by heat-balling. Comparison with other arthropods showed that vespine wasps are among the insects with the highest mass-specific resting metabolic rate and the steepest increase of metabolism with ambient temperature.

Wespen (Vespula sp., Hymenoptera, Vespidae) sind zu beeindruckenden thermoregulatorischen Leistungen fähig. Trotzdem sind Informationen über ihre Atmung rar, und über ihren Ruhestoffwechsel ist fast nichts bekannt. Wir untersuchten Atmung und Stoffwechsel von ruhenden Wespen, indem wir die CO2 Produktion mittels Durchfluss-Respirometrie über Nacht bestimmten. Um sicherzustellen, dass die Tiere unserer Definition nach „ruhig“ waren, wurden etwaige thermoregulatorische Aktivität sowie das Verhalten mittels IR-Thermographie aufgezeichnet. Die meisten ruhenden Wespen waren ektotherm oder nur schwach endotherm (Temperaturüberschuss Thorax zu Abdomen < 0,6 °C). Bei hohen Temperaturen (> 30 °C) kühlten viele Individuen Kopf und Thorax durch Herauswürgen von Flüssigkeit (Verdunstungskühlung). Im beobachteten Temperaturbereich (Ta = 2,8 bis 42,4 °C) stieg die CO2-Produktion exponentiell (32,6 nl mg-1 s-1 bei 2,8 °C, 437,4 nl mg-1 s-1 bei 25,0 °C, 2312,5 nl mg-1 s-1 bei 42,3 °C) mit der Außentemperatur bis zum Erreichen des kritischen thermischen Maximums bei ~ 45 °C. Vergleiche mit anderen Arthropoden zeigen, dass Wespen unter den Arten mit dem höchsten massenspezifischen Ruheumsatz sind. Bei 20 °C ist ihre CO2 Produktion um 60% höher als die der Honigbiene (Apis mellifera): 300,9 nl mg-1 s-1 vs. 186 nl mg-1 s-1. Nowickia sp., eine Tachinide mit vergleichbarer Masse, hat einen noch niedrigeren Ruhestoffwechsel von nur 38,4 nl mg-1 s-1 oder 13 % des Umsatzes der Wespe. Ein Vergleich mehrerer Arten anhand von Literaturdaten zeigt, dass der Grundumsatz offensichtlich nicht über Taxongrenzen hinaus mit der Körpermasse korreliert. Sogar relativ nahe verwandte Arten wie Honigbiene und Wespe unterscheiden sich im Ruhestoffwechsel beträchtlich., Helmut Käfer, Helmut Kovac & Anton Stabentheiner

The Western honeybees Apis mellifera carnica and A. m. ligustica are closely related subspecies living in neighbouring regions. Metabolism and the upper lethal thermal limits are crucial physiological traits, adapted in the evolutionary process to environment and climate conditions. We investigated whether samples from these two ecotypes differ in these traits. The standard metabolic rate was higher in the A. m. ligustica population only at a high temperature (T a ~ 40 °C; dVCO2 = 12 nl s−1; P < 0.05), probably due to a higher body temperature (dTthorax = 1.5 °C; P < 0.01). The critical thermal maximum of activity and respiration was similar (difference activity CTmax = 0.8 °C, respiratory CTmax = 1.1 °C). The lethal temperature (LT50, 8h) revealed higher tolerance and survival rates of the Ligustica bees (Carnica 50.3 °C; Ligustica 51.7 °C; P < 0.02). Results reveal the adaptation of the two subspecies to their historic climate conditions, possibly favouring Ligustica in a warming environment.

Helmut Kovac, Anton Stabentheiner, Helmut Käfer, Barbara Oswald

Endothermic insects like honeybees and some wasps have to cope with an enormous heat loss during foraging because of their small body size in comparison to endotherms like mammals and birds. The enormous costs of thermoregulation call for optimisation. Honeybees and wasps differ in their critical thermal maximum, which enables the bees to kill the wasps by heat. We here demonstrate the benefits of a combined use of body temperature measurement with infrared thermography, and respiratory measurements of energy turnover (O2 consumption or CO2 production via flow-through respirometry) to answer questions of insect ecophysiological research, and we describe calibrations to receive accurate results. To assess the question of what foraging honeybees optimise, their body temperature was compared with their energy turnover. Honeybees foraging from an artificial flower with unlimited sucrose flow increased body surface temperature and energy turnover with profitability of foraging (sucrose content of the food; 0.5 or 1.5 mol/L). Costs of thermoregulation, however, were rather independent of ambient temperature (13–30 °C). External heat gain by solar radiation was used to increase body temperature. This optimised foraging energetics by increasing suction speed. In determinations of insect respiratory critical thermal limits, the combined use of respiratory measurements and thermography made possible a more conclusive interpretation of respiratory traces.