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The molecular clock REV-ERBα regulates lung injury during fibrosis, but the role of REV-ERBα in fibrogenesis remains unknown. Here, the authors show that REV-ERBα interacts with the lysyl oxidase-collagen axis during fibrogenesis and demonstrate the therapeutic potential of Rev-erbα agonist against lung fibrosis.

Epidemic diseases that arise from infectious RNA viruses, particularly influenza viruses, pose a constant threat to the global economy and public health. Viral evolution has undermined the efficacy of acquired immunity from vaccines and the antiviral effects of FDA-approved drugs. As such, there is an urgent need to develop new antiviral lead agents. Natural compounds, owing to their historical validation of application and safety, have become a promising solution. In this light, a novel marine bacterium, Pseudomonas sp. M20A4R8, has been found to exhibit significant antiviral activity [half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) = 1.3 µg/mL, selectivity index (SI) = 919.4] against influenza virus A/Puerto Rico/8/34, surpassing the activity of chloroquine. The antiviral response via M20A4R8 extract was induced during post-entry stages of the influenza virus, indicating suitability for post-application after the establishment of viral infection. Furthermore, post-treatment with M20A4R8 extract protected the host from virus-induced apoptosis, suggesting its potential use in acute respiratory disease complexes resulting from immune effectors’ overstimulation and autophagy-mediated self-apoptosis. The extract demonstrated an outstanding therapeutic index against influenza virus A/Wisconsin/15/2009 (IC50 = 8.1 µg/mL, SI = 146.2) and B/Florida/78/2015 Victoria lineage (IC50 = 3.5 µg/mL, SI = 343.8), indicating a broad anti-influenza virus activity with guaranteed safety and effectiveness. This study provides a new perspective on mechanisms for preventing a broad spectrum of viral infections through antiviral agents from novel and natural origins. Future studies on a single or combined compound from the extract hold promise, encouraging its use in preclinical challenge tests with various influenza virus strains.

Human alveolar and tracheobronchial epithelial air liquid interface (ALI) tissues are used as models to examine cellular responses to SARS-CoV-2 and influenza A virus infections and as antiviral drug screening assay platforms.

ABSTRACT Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has led to a worldwide coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Despite the high efficacy of the authorized vaccines, there may be uncertain and unknown side effects or disadvantages associated with current vaccination approaches. Live-attenuated vaccines (LAVs) have been shown to elicit robust and long-term protection by the induction of host innate and adaptive immune responses. In this study, we sought to verify an attenuation strategy by generating 3 double open reading frame (ORF)-deficient recombinant SARS-CoV-2s (rSARS-CoV-2s) simultaneously lacking two accessory ORF proteins (ORF3a/ORF6, ORF3a/ORF7a, and ORF3a/ORF7b). We report that these double ORF-deficient rSARS-CoV-2s have slower replication kinetics and reduced fitness in cultured cells compared with their parental wild-type (WT) counterpart. Importantly, these double ORF-deficient rSARS-CoV-2s showed attenuation in both K18 hACE2 transgenic mice and golden Syrian hamsters. A single intranasal dose vaccination induced high levels of neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 and some variants of concern and activated viral component-specific T cell responses. Notably, double ORF-deficient rSARS-CoV-2s were able to protect, as determined by the inhibition of viral replication, shedding, and transmission, against challenge with SARS-CoV-2 in both K18 hACE2 mice and golden Syrian hamsters. Collectively, our results demonstrate the feasibility of implementing the double ORF-deficient strategy to develop safe, immunogenic, and protective LAVs to prevent SARS-CoV-2 infection and associated COVID-19. IMPORTANCE Live-attenuated vaccines (LAVs) are able to induce robust immune responses, including both humoral and cellular immunity, representing a very promising option to provide broad and long-term immunity. To develop LAVs for SARS-CoV-2, we engineered attenuated recombinant SARS-CoV-2 (rSARS-CoV-2) that simultaneously lacks the viral open reading frame 3a (ORF3a) in combination with either ORF6, ORF7a, or ORF7b (Δ3a/Δ6, Δ3a/Δ7a, and Δ3a/Δ7b, respectively) proteins. Among them, the rSARS-CoV-2 Δ3a/Δ7b was completely attenuated and able to provide 100% protection against an otherwise lethal challenge in K18 hACE2 transgenic mice. Moreover, the rSARS-CoV-2 Δ3a/Δ7b conferred protection against viral transmission between golden Syrian hamsters.

To address the ongoing SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and prepare for future coronavirus outbreaks, understanding the protective potential of epitopes conserved across SARS-CoV-2 variants and coronavirus lineages is essential. We describe a highly conserved, conformational S2 domain epitope present only in the prefusion core of β-coronaviruses: SARS-CoV-2 S2 apex residues 980–1006 in the flexible hinge. Antibody RAY53 binds the native hinge in MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 spikes on the surface of mammalian cells and mediates antibody-dependent cellular phagocytosis and cytotoxicity against SARS-CoV-2 spike in vitro. Hinge epitope mutations that ablate antibody binding compromise pseudovirus infectivity, but changes elsewhere that affect spike opening dynamics, including those found in Omicron BA.1, occlude the epitope and may evade pre-existing serum antibodies targeting the S2 core. This work defines a third class of S2 antibody while providing insights into the potency and limitations of S2 core epitope targeting.

ABSTRACT Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the highly contagious agent responsible for the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. An essential requirement for understanding SARS-CoV-2 biology and the impact of antiviral therapeutics is a robust method to detect the presence of the virus in infected cells or animal models. Despite the development and successful generation of recombinant (r)SARS-CoV-2-expressing fluorescent or luciferase reporter genes, knowledge acquired from their use in in vitro assays and/or in live animals is limited to the properties of the fluorescent or luciferase reporter genes. Herein, for the first time, we engineered a replication-competent rSARS-CoV-2 that expresses both fluorescent (mCherry) and luciferase (Nluc) reporter genes (rSARS-CoV-2/mCherry-Nluc) to overcome limitations associated with the use of a single reporter gene. In cultured cells, rSARS-CoV-2/mCherry-Nluc displayed similar viral fitness as rSARS-CoV-2 expressing single reporter fluorescent and luciferase genes (rSARS-CoV-2/mCherry and rSARS-CoV-2/Nluc, respectively) or wild-type (WT) rSARS-CoV-2, while maintaining comparable expression levels of both reporter genes. In vivo, rSARS-CoV-2/mCherry-Nluc has similar pathogenicity in K18 human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (hACE2) transgenic mice than rSARS-CoV-2 expressing individual reporter genes or WT rSARS-CoV-2. Importantly, rSARS-CoV-2/mCherry-Nluc facilitates the assessment of viral infection and transmission in golden Syrian hamsters using in vivo imaging systems (IVIS). Altogether, this study demonstrates the feasibility of using this novel bioreporter-expressing rSARS-CoV-2 for the study of SARS-CoV-2 in vitro and in vivo. IMPORTANCE Despite the availability of vaccines and antivirals, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) continues to ravage health care institutions worldwide. Previously, we generated replication-competent recombinant (r)SARS-CoV-2 expressing fluorescent or luciferase reporter proteins to track viral infection in vitro and/or in vivo. However, these rSARS-CoV-2 are restricted to express only a single fluorescent or a luciferase reporter gene, limiting or preventing their use in specific in vitro assays and/or in vivo studies. To overcome this limitation, we have engineered a rSARS-CoV-2 expressing both fluorescent (mCherry) and luciferase (Nluc) genes and demonstrated its feasibility to study the biology of SARS-CoV-2 in vitro and/or in vivo, including the identification and characterization of neutralizing antibodies and/or antivirals. Using rodent models, we visualized SARS-CoV-2 infection and transmission through in vivo imaging systems (IVIS).

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection leads to NF-κB activation and induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines, though the underlying mechanism for this activation is not fully understood. Our results reveal that the SARS-CoV-2 Nsp14 protein contributes to the viral activation of NF-κB signaling. Nsp14 caused the nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65. Nsp14 induced the upregulation of IL-6 and IL-8, which also occurred in SARS-CoV-2 infected cells. IL-8 upregulation was further confirmed in lung tissue samples from COVID-19 patients. A previous proteomic screen identified the putative interaction of Nsp14 with host Inosine-5’-monophosphate dehydrogenase 2 (IMPDH2), which is known to regulate NF-κB signaling. We confirmed the Nsp14-IMPDH2 protein interaction and identified that IMPDH2 knockdown or chemical inhibition using ribavirin (RIB) and mycophenolic acid (MPA) abolishes Nsp14- mediated NF-κB activation and cytokine induction. Furthermore, IMPDH2 inhibitors (RIB, MPA) or NF-κB inhibitors (bortezomib, BAY 11-7082) restricted SARS-CoV-2 infection, indicating that IMPDH2-mediated activation of NF-κB signaling is beneficial to viral replication. Overall, our results identify a novel role of SARS-CoV-2 Nsp14 in inducing NF-κB activation through IMPDH2 to promote viral infection.

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) marks the third novel β-coronavirus to cause significant human mortality in the last two decades. Although vaccines are available, too few have been administered worldwide to keep the virus in check and to prevent mutations leading to immune escape. To determine if antibodies could be identified with universal coronavirus activity, plasma from convalescent subjects was screened for IgG against a stabilized pre-fusion SARS-CoV-2 spike S2 domain, which is highly conserved between human β-coronavirus. From these subjects, several S2-specific human monoclonal antibodies (hmAbs) were developed that neutralized SARS-CoV-2 with recognition of all variants of concern (VoC) tested (Beta, Gamma, Delta, Epsilon, and Omicron). The hmAb 1249A8 emerged as the most potent and broad hmAb, able to recognize all human β-coronavirus and neutralize SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV. 1249A8 demonstrated significant prophylactic activity in K18 hACE2 mice infected with SARS-CoV-2 lineage A and lineage B Beta, and Omicron VoC. 1249A8 delivered as a single 4 mg/kg intranasal (i.n.) dose to hamsters 12 hours following infection with SARS-CoV-2 Delta protected them from weight loss, with therapeutic activity further enhanced when combined with 1213H7, an S1-specific neutralizing hmAb. As little as 2 mg/kg of 1249A8 i.n. dose 12 hours following infection with SARS-CoV Urbani strain, protected hamsters from weight loss and significantly reduced upper and lower respiratory viral burden. These results indicate in vivo cooperativity between S1 and S2 specific neutralizing hmAbs and that potent universal coronavirus neutralizing mAbs with therapeutic potential can be induced in humans and can guide universal coronavirus vaccine development.

The COVID-19 pandemic has underscored the importance of swift responses and the necessity of dependable technologies for vaccine development. Our team previously developed a fast cloning system for the modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) vaccine platform. In this study, we reported on the construction and preclinical testing of a recombinant MVA vaccine obtained using this system. We obtained recombinant MVA expressing the unmodified full-length SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein containing the D614G amino-acid substitution (MVA-Sdg) and a version expressing a modified S protein containing amino-acid substitutions designed to stabilize the protein a in a pre-fusion conformation (MVA-Spf). S protein expressed by MVA-Sdg was found to be expressed and was correctly processed and transported to the cell surface, where it efficiently produced cell–cell fusion. Version Spf, however, was not proteolytically processed, and despite being transported to the plasma membrane, it failed to induce cell–cell fusion. We assessed both vaccine candidates in prime-boost regimens in the susceptible transgenic K18-human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (K18-hACE2) in mice and in golden Syrian hamsters. Robust immunity and protection from disease was induced with either vaccine in both animal models. Remarkably, the MVA-Spf vaccine candidate produced higher levels of antibodies, a stronger T cell response, and a higher degree of protection from challenge. In addition, the level of SARS-CoV-2 in the brain of MVA-Spf inoculated mice was decreased to undetectable levels. Those results add to our current experience and range of vaccine vectors and technologies for developing a safe and effective COVID-19 vaccine.

Here, the authors characterize tissue-level SARS-CoV-2 infection and pathogenesis in transgenic mice expressing human angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (hACE2) by the human cytokeratin 18 promoter (K18-hACE2) and show that infection induces lethality, making the K18-hACE2 model suitable for vaccine and therapeutic evaluation.

Specific non-structural proteins (nsp) of SARS coronaviruses are involved in methylation of virally encoded mRNAs to mimic cellular mRNAs for protection against host innate immune restriction. Here, the authors present a high resolution structure of SARS-CoV-2 nsp16/nsp10 ternary complex in the presence of cognate RNA substrate analogue and methyl donor, S-adenosyl methionine, revealing unique ligand-binding sites that may represent alternative targets for antiviral development.

ABSTRACT Recombinant viruses expressing reporter genes allow visualization and quantification of viral infections and can be used as valid surrogates to identify the presence of the virus in infected cells and animal models. However, one of the limitations of recombinant viruses expressing reporter genes is the use of either fluorescent or luciferase proteins that are used alternatively for different purposes. Vaccinia virus (VV) is widely used as a viral vector, including recombinant (r)VV singly expressing either fluorescent or luciferase reporter genes that are useful for specific purposes. In this report, we engineered two novel rVV stably expressing both fluorescent (Scarlet or GFP) and luciferase (Nluc) reporter genes from different loci in the viral genome. In vitro, these bi-reporter-expressing rVV have similar growth kinetics and plaque phenotype than those of the parental WR VV isolate. In vivo, rVV Nluc/Scarlet and rVV Nluc/GFP effectively infected mice and were easily detected using in vivo imaging systems (IVIS) and ex vivo in the lungs from infected mice. Importantly, we used these bi-reporter-expressing rVV to assess viral pathogenesis, infiltration of immune cells in the lungs, and to directly identify the different subsets of cells infected by VV in the absence of antibody staining. Collectively, these rVV expressing two reporter genes open the feasibility to study the biology of viral infections in vitro and in vivo, including host-pathogen interactions and dynamics or tropism of viral infections. IMPORTANCE Despite the eradication of variola virus (VARV), the causative agent of smallpox, poxviruses still represent an important threat to human health due to their possible use as bioterrorism agents and the emergence of zoonotic poxvirus diseases. Recombinant vaccinia viruses (rVV) expressing easily traceable fluorescent or luciferase reporter genes have significantly contributed to the progress of poxvirus research. However, rVV expressing one marker gene have several constraints for in vitro and in vivo studies, since both fluorescent and luciferase proteins impose certain limitations for specific applications. To overcome these limitations, we generated optimized rVV stably expressing both fluorescent (Scarlet or GFP) and luciferase (Nluc) reporter genes to easily track viral infection in vitro and in vivo. This new generation of double reporter-expressing rVV represent an excellent option to study viral infection dynamics in cultured cells and validated animal models of infection.

Summary: Global deployment of an effective and safe vaccine is necessary to curtail the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Here, we evaluated a Newcastle disease virus (NDV)-based vectored-vaccine in mice and hamsters for its immunogenicity, safety, and protective efficacy against SARS-CoV-2. Intranasal administration of recombinant (r)NDV-S vaccine expressing spike (S) protein of SARS-CoV-2 to mice induced high levels of SARS-CoV-2-specific neutralizing immunoglobulin A (IgA) and IgG2a antibodies and T-cell-mediated immunity. Hamsters immunized with two doses of vaccine showed complete protection from lung infection, inflammation, and pathological lesions following SARS-CoV-2 challenge. Importantly, administration of two doses of intranasal rNDV-S vaccine significantly reduced the SARS-CoV-2 shedding in nasal turbinate and lungs in hamsters. Collectively, intranasal vaccination has the potential to control infection at the site of inoculation, which should prevent both clinical disease and virus transmission to halt the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Abstract Porcine rotaviruses cause severe economic losses in the Korean swine industry due to G- and P-genotype mismatches between the predominant field and vaccine strains. Here, we developed a live attenuated trivalent porcine group A rotavirus vaccine using 80 cell culture passages of the representative Korean predominant strains G8P[7] 174-1, G9P[23] PRG942, and G5P[7] K71. Vaccination with the trivalent vaccine or its individual components induced no diarrhea during the first 2 weeks post-vaccination, i.e., the vaccines were attenuated. Challenge of trivalent-vaccinated or component-vaccinated piglets with homologous virulent strain(s) did not induce diarrhea for 2 weeks post-challenge. Immunization with the trivalent vaccine or its individual components also alleviated the histopathological lesions in the small intestines caused by challenge with the corresponding original virulent strain(s). Fecal secretory IgAs specific for each of vaccine strains were detected starting at 14 days post-vaccination (dpv), and IgA levels gradually increased up to 28 dpv. Oral immunization with the trivalent vaccine or its individual components induced high levels of serum virus-neutralizing antibody by 7 dpv. No diarrhea was observed in any experimental piglets during five consecutive passages of each vaccine strain. Our data indicated that the live attenuated trivalent vaccine was safe and effective at protecting piglets from diarrhea induced by challenge exposure of homologous virulent strains. This trivalent vaccine will potentially contribute toward controlling porcine rotavirus disease in South Korea and other countries where rotavirus infections with similar G and P genotypes are problematic.

Conventionally, hyperimmune globulin drugs manufactured from pooled immunoglobulins from vaccinated or convalescent donors have been used in treating infections where no treatment is available. This is especially important where multi-epitope neutralization is required to prevent the development of immune-evading viral mutants that can emerge upon treatment with monoclonal antibodies. Using microfluidics, flow sorting, and a targeted integration cell line, a first-in-class recombinant hyperimmune globulin therapeutic against SARS-CoV-2 (GIGA-2050) was generated. Using processes similar to conventional monoclonal antibody manufacturing, GIGA-2050, comprising 12,500 antibodies, was scaled-up for clinical manufacturing and multiple development/tox lots were assessed for consistency. Antibody sequence diversity, cell growth, productivity, and product quality were assessed across different manufacturing sites and production scales. GIGA-2050 was purified and tested for good laboratory procedures (GLP) toxicology, pharmacokinetics, and in vivo efficacy against natural SARS-CoV-2 infection in mice. The GIGA-2050 master cell bank was highly stable, producing material at consistent yield and product quality up to >70 generations. Good manufacturing practices (GMP) and development batches of GIGA-2050 showed consistent product quality, impurity clearance, potency, and protection in an in vivo efficacy model. Nonhuman primate toxicology and pharmacokinetics studies suggest that GIGA-2050 is safe and has a half-life similar to other recombinant human IgG1 antibodies. These results supported a successful investigational new drug application for GIGA-2050. This study demonstrates that a new class of drugs, recombinant hyperimmune globulins, can be manufactured consistently at the clinical scale and presents a new approach to treating infectious diseases that targets multiple epitopes of a virus.

ABSTRACT Infectious coronavirus (CoV) disease 2019 (COVID-19) emerged in the city of Wuhan (China) in December 2019, causing a pandemic that has dramatically impacted public health and socioeconomic activities worldwide. A previously unknown coronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome CoV-2 (SARS-CoV-2), has been identified as the causative agent of COVID-19. To date, there are no U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved vaccines or therapeutics available for the prevention or treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection and/or associated COVID-19 disease, which has triggered a large influx of scientific efforts to develop countermeasures to control SARS-CoV-2 spread. To contribute to these efforts, we have developed an infectious cDNA clone of the SARS-CoV-2 USA-WA1/2020 strain based on the use of a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC). Recombinant SARS-CoV-2 (rSARS-CoV-2) was readily rescued by transfection of the BAC into Vero E6 cells. Importantly, BAC-derived rSARS-CoV-2 exhibited growth properties and plaque sizes in cultured cells comparable to those of the natural SARS-CoV-2 isolate. Likewise, rSARS-CoV-2 showed levels of replication similar to those of the natural isolate in nasal turbinates and lungs of infected golden Syrian hamsters. This is, to our knowledge, the first BAC-based reverse genetics system for the generation of infectious rSARS-CoV-2 that displays features in vivo similar to those of a natural viral isolate. This SARS-CoV-2 BAC-based reverse genetics will facilitate studies addressing several important questions in the biology of SARS-CoV-2, as well as the identification of antivirals and development of vaccines for the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection and associated COVID-19 disease. IMPORTANCE The pandemic coronavirus (CoV) disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome CoV-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a major threat to global human health. To date, there are no approved prophylactics or therapeutics available for COVID-19. Reverse genetics is a powerful approach to understand factors involved in viral pathogenesis, antiviral screening, and vaccine development. In this study, we describe the feasibility of generating recombinant SARS-CoV-2 (rSARS-CoV-2) by transfection of a single bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC). Importantly, rSARS-CoV-2 possesses the same phenotype as the natural isolate in vitro and in vivo. This is the first description of a BAC-based reverse genetics system for SARS-CoV-2 and the first time that an rSARS-CoV-2 isolate has been shown to be phenotypically identical to a natural isolate in a validated animal model of SARS-CoV-2 infection. The BAC-based reverse genetics approach will facilitate the study of SARS-CoV-2 and the development of prophylactics and therapeutics for the treatment of COVID-19.

Oncolytic virotherapy has garnered attention as an antigen-agnostic therapeutic cancer vaccine that induces cancer-specific T cell responses without additional antigen loading. As anticancer immune responses are compromised by a lack of antigenicity and chronic immunosuppressive microenvironments, an effective immuno-oncology modality that converts cold tumors into hot tumors is crucial. To evaluate the immune-activating characteristics of oncolytic vaccinia virus (VACV; JX-594, pexastimogene devacirepvec), diverse murine syngeneic cancer models with different tissue types and immune microenvironments were used. Intratumorally administered mJX-594, a murine variant of JX-594, potently increased CD8+ T cells, including antigen-specific cancer CD8+ T cells, and decreased immunosuppressive cells irrespective of tissue type or therapeutic efficacy. Remodeling of tumors into inflamed ones by mJX-594 led to a response to combined anti-PD-1 treatment, but not to mJX-594 or anti-PD-1 monotherapy. mJX-594 treatment increased T cell factor 1-positive stem-like T cells among cancer-specific CD8+ T cells, and anti-PD-1 combination treatment further increased proliferation of these cells, which was important for therapeutic efficacy. The presence of functional cancer-specific CD8+ T cells in the spleen and bone marrow for an extended period, which proliferated upon encountering cancer antigen-loaded splenic dendritic cells, further indicated that long-term durable anticancer immunity was elicited by oncolytic VACV.

Abstract Caliciviruses in the genus Sapovirus are a significant cause of viral gastroenteritis in humans and animals. However, the mechanism of their entry into cells is not well characterized. Here, we determined the entry mechanism of porcine sapovirus (PSaV) strain Cowden into permissive LLC-PK cells. The inhibition of clathrin-mediated endocytosis using chlorpromazine, siRNAs, and a dominant negative (DN) mutant blocked entry and infection of PSaV Cowden strain, confirming a role for clathrin-mediated internalization. Entry and infection were also inhibited by the cholesterol-sequestering drug methyl-β-cyclodextrin and was restored by the addition of soluble cholesterol, indicating that cholesterol also contributes to entry and infection of this strain. Furthermore, the inhibition of dynamin GTPase activity by dynasore, siRNA depletion of dynamin II, or overexpression of a DN mutant of dynamin II reduced the entry and infection, suggesting that dynamin mediates the fission and detachment of clathrin- and cholesterol-pits for entry of this strain. In contrast, the inhibition of caveolae-mediated endocytosis using nystatin, siRNAs, or a DN mutant had no inhibitory effect on entry and infection of this strain. It was further determined that cell entry of PSaV Cowden strain required actin rearrangements for vesicle internalization, endosomal trafficking from early to late endosomes through microtubules, and late endosomal acidification for uncoating. We conclude that PSaV strain Cowden is internalized into LLC-PK cells by clathrin- and cholesterol-mediated endocytosis that requires dynamin II and actin rearrangement, and that the uncoating occurs in the acidified late endosomes after trafficking from the early endosomes through microtubules.

This study determined the optimal mixing ratio of food waste and livestock manure for efficient co-digestion of sewage sludge by applying the biochemical methane potential (BMP) test, Design Expert software, and continuous reactor operation. The BMP test of sewage sludge revealed a maximum methane yield of 334 mL CH4/g volatile solids (VS) at an organic loading rate (OLR) of 4 kg VS/(m3·d). For food waste, the maximum methane yield was 573 mL CH4/g VS at an OLR of 6 kg VS/(m3·d). Livestock manure showed the lowest methane yield. The BMP tests with various mixing ratios confirmed that a higher mixing ratio of food waste resulted in a higher methane yield, which showed improved biodegradability and an improved VS removal rate. The optimal mixing ratio of 2:1:1 for sewage sludge, food waste, and livestock manure was determined using Design Expert 10. Using continuous co-digestion reactor operation under an optimal mixing ratio, greater organic matter removal and methane yield was possible. The process stability of co-digestion of optimally mixed substrate was improved compared with that of operations with each substrate alone. Therefore, co-digestion could properly maintain the balance of each stage of anaerobic digestion reactions by complementing the characteristics of each substrate under a higher OLR.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Zika virus (ZIKV) is one of the recently emerging vector-borne viruses in humans and is responsible for severe congenital abnormalities such as microcephaly in the Western Hemisphere. Currently, only a few vaccine candidates and therapeutic drugs are being developed for the treatment of ZIKV infections, and as of yet none are commercially available. The polyanionic aromatic compound aurintricarboxylic acid (ATA) has been shown to have a broad-spectrum antimicrobial and antiviral activity. In this study, we evaluated ATA as a potential antiviral drug against ZIKV replication. The antiviral activity of ATA against ZIKV replication in vitro showed median inhibitory concentrations (IC50) of 13.87 ± 1.09 μM and 33.33 ± 1.13 μM in Vero and A549 cells, respectively; without showing any cytotoxic effect in both cell lines (median cytotoxic concentration (CC50) > 1,000 μM). Moreover, ATA protected both cell types from ZIKV-induced cytopathic effect (CPE) and apoptosis in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. In addition, pre-treatment of Vero cells with ATA for up to 72 h also resulted in effective suppression of ZIKV replication with similar IC50. Importantly, the inhibitory effect of ATA on ZIKV infection was effective against strains of the African and Asian/American lineages, indicating that this inhibitory effect was not strain dependent. Overall, these results demonstrate that ATA has potent inhibitory activity against ZIKV replication and may be considered as a potential anti-ZIKV therapy for future clinical evaluation.

Zika virus (ZIKV) was identified in 1947 in the Zika forest of Uganda and it has emerged recently as a global health threat, with recurring outbreaks and its associations with congenital microcephaly through maternal fetal transmission and Guillain-Barré syndrome. Currently, there are no United States (US) Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved vaccines or antivirals to treat ZIKV infections, which underscores an urgent medical need for the development of disease intervention strategies to treat ZIKV infection and associated disease. Drug repurposing offers various advantages over developing an entirely new drug by significantly reducing the timeline and resources required to advance a candidate antiviral into the clinic. Screening the ReFRAME library, we identified ten compounds with antiviral activity against the prototypic mammarenavirus lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV). Moreover, we showed the ability of these ten compounds to inhibit influenza A and B virus infections, supporting their broad-spectrum antiviral activity. In this study, we further evaluated the broad-spectrum antiviral activity of the ten identified compounds by testing their activity against ZIKV. Among the ten compounds, Azaribine (SI-MTT = 146.29), AVN-944 (SI-MTT = 278.16), and Brequinar (SI-MTT = 157.42) showed potent anti-ZIKV activity in post-treatment therapeutic conditions. We also observed potent anti-ZIKV activity for Mycophenolate mofetil (SI-MTT = 20.51), Mycophenolic acid (SI-MTT = 36.33), and AVN-944 (SI-MTT = 24.51) in pre-treatment prophylactic conditions and potent co-treatment inhibitory activity for Obatoclax (SI-MTT = 60.58), Azaribine (SI-MTT = 91.51), and Mycophenolate mofetil (SI-MTT = 73.26) in co-treatment conditions. Importantly, the inhibitory effect of these compounds was strain independent, as they similarly inhibited ZIKV strains from both African and Asian/American lineages. Our results support the broad-spectrum antiviral activity of these ten compounds and suggest their use for the development of antiviral treatment options of ZIKV infection.

Research on various security technologies has been actively underway to protect systems from attackers. However, attackers can secure enough time to reconnoiter and attack the target system owing to its static nature. This develops asymmetric warfare in which attackers outwit defenders. Moving target defense (MTD) technologies, which obfuscate the attack surface by modifying the main properties of the potential target system, have been gaining attention as an active cyber security technology. Particularly, network-based MTD (NMTD) technologies, which dynamically mutate the network configuration information, such as IP and ports of the potential target system, can dramatically increase the time required for an attacker to analyze the system. Therefore, this system defense technology has been actively researched. However, increasing the analysis complexity of the target system is limited in conventional NMTD because the variation of system properties (e.g., IP, port) that can be mutated is restricted by the system configuration environment. Therefore, there is a need for an MTD technique that effectively delays an attacker during the system analysis by increasing the variation of system properties. Additionally, in terms of practicality, minimizing the computational overhead arising by the MTD technology and solving the compatibility problem with existing communication protocols are critical issues that cannot be overlooked. In this study, we propose a technology called Ghost-MTD (gMTD). gMTD allows only the user who is aware of protocol mutation patterns to correctly communicate with the service modules of the server system through protocol mutation using the pre-shared one-time bit sequence. Otherwise, gMTD deceives the attackers who attempt to infiltrate the system by redirecting their messages to a decoy-hole module. The experimental results show that the proposed technology enables protocol mutation and validation with a very low performance overhead of only 3.28% to 4.97% using an m-bit (m ≥ 4) length one-time bit sequence and can be applied to real systems regardless of the specific communication protocols.

Although seasonal influenza vaccines block most predominant influenza types and subtypes, humans still remain vulnerable to waves of seasonal and new potential pandemic influenza viruses for which no immunity may exist because of viral antigenic drift and/or shift. Previously, we described a human monoclonal antibody (hMAb), KPF1, which was produced in human embryonic kidney 293T cells (KPF1-HEK) with broad and potent neutralizing activity against H1N1 influenza A viruses (IAV) in vitro, and prophylactic and therapeutic activities in vivo. In this study, we produced hMAb KPF1 in tobacco plants (KPF1-Antx) and demonstrated how the plant-produced KPF1-Antx hMAb possesses similar biological activity compared with the mammalian-produced KPF1-HEK hMAb. KPF1-Antx hMAb showed broad binding to recombinant HA proteins and H1N1 IAV, including A/California/04/2009 (pH1N1) in vitro, which was comparable to that observed with KPF1-HEK hMAb. Importantly, prophylactic administration of KPF1-Antx hMAb to guinea pigs prevented pH1N1 infection and transmission in both prophylactic and therapeutic experiments, substantiating its clinical potential to prevent and treat H1N1 infections. Collectively, this study demonstrated, for the first time, a plant-produced influenza hMAb with in vitro and in vivo activity against influenza virus. Because of the many advantages of plant-produced hMAbs, such as rapid batch production, low cost, and the absence of mammalian cell products, they represent an alternative strategy for the production of immunotherapeutics for the treatment of influenza viral infections, including emerging seasonal and/or pandemic strains.

The cellular PI3K/Akt and/or MEK/ERK signaling pathways mediate the entry process or endosomal acidification during infection of many viruses. However, their roles in the early infection events of group A rotaviruses (RVAs) have remained elusive. Here, we show that late-penetration (L-P) human DS-1 and bovine NCDV RVA strains stimulate these signaling pathways very early in the infection. Inhibition of both signaling pathways significantly reduced production of viral progeny due to blockage of virus particles in the late endosome, indicating that neither of the two signaling pathways is involved in virus trafficking. However, immunoprecipitation assays using antibodies specific for pPI3K, pAkt, pERK and the subunit E of the V-ATPase co-immunoprecipitated the V-ATPase in complex with pPI3K, pAkt, and pERK. Moreover, Duolink proximity ligation assay revealed direct association of the subunit E of the V-ATPase with the molecules pPI3K, pAkt, and pERK, indicating that both signaling pathways are involved in V-ATPase-dependent endosomal acidification. Acidic replenishment of the medium restored uncoating of the RVA strains in cells pretreated with inhibitors specific for both signaling pathways, confirming the above results. Isolated components of the outer capsid proteins, expressed as VP4-VP8* and VP4-VP5* domains, and VP7, activated the PI3K/Akt and MEK/ERK pathways. Furthermore, psoralen-UV-inactivated RVA and CsCl-purified RVA triple-layered particles triggered activation of the PI3K/Akt and MEK/ERK pathways, confirming the above results. Our data demonstrate that multistep binding of outer capsid proteins of L-P RVA strains with cell surface receptors phosphorylates PI3K, Akt, and ERK, which in turn directly interact with the subunit E of the V-ATPase to acidify the late endosome for uncoating of RVAs. This study provides a better understanding of the RVA-host interaction during viral uncoating, which is of importance for the development of strategies aiming at controlling or preventing RVA infections.

Cyclooxygenases (COXs)/prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) signaling pathways are known to modulate a variety of homeostatic processes and are involved in various pathophysiological conditions. COXs/PGE2 signaling pathways have also been demonstrated to have proviral or antiviral effects, which appeared different even in the same virus family. A porcine sapovirus Cowden strain, a member of genus Sapovirus within the Caliciviridae family, induces strong COX-2/PGE2 but transient COX-1/PGE2 signaling to enhance virus replication. However, whether infections of other viruses in the different genera activate COXs/PGE2 signaling, and thus affect the replication of viruses, remains unknown. In the present study, infections of cells with the feline calicivirus (FCV) F9 strain in the genus Vesivirus and murine norovirus (MNV) CW-1 strain in the genus Norovirus only activated the COX-2/PGE2 signaling in a time-dependent manner. Treatment with pharmacological inhibitors or transfection of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) against COX-2 enzyme significantly reduced the production of PGE2 as well as FCV and MNV replications. The inhibitory effects of these pharmacological inhibitors against COX-2 enzyme on the replication of both viruses were restored by the addition of PGE2. Silencing of COX-1 via siRNAs and inhibition of COX-1 via an inhibitor also decrease the production of PGE2 and replication of both viruses, which can be attributed to the inhibition COX-1/PGE2 signaling pathway. These data indicate that the COX-2/PGE2 signaling pathway has proviral effects for the replication of FCV and MNV, and pharmacological inhibitors against these enzymes serve as potential therapeutic candidates for treating FCV and MNV infections.

Biochemical methane potential tests and lab-scale continuous experiments were conducted to improve the yield and energy efficiency of anaerobic digestion through thermal hydrolysis pre-treatment. Methane generation, yield, and solubilization efficiency were evaluated through lab-scale tests. The pre-treated samples presented 50% biodegradability at 140 °C and 61.5% biodegradability at 165 °C. The increase in biodegradability was insignificant at 165 °C or higher temperature, and it was confirmed that the optimum conditions were achieved at 165 °C and 20 min of solubilization. The lab-scale continuous experiments confirmed that polymers were decomposed into low-molecular-weight compounds due to thermal hydrolysis, and pH decreased. NH4HCO3 produced by thermal hydrolysis acted as an alkali to enable a more stable operation compared to that before thermal hydrolysis. Total chemical oxygen demand as chromium (TCODCr) and soluble chemical oxygen demand as chromium (SCODCr) indicated 35.4% and 23.1% removal efficiency in terms of organic matter removal, respectively. Methane yield was approximately 0.35 kg m−3 at 2.0−4.0 kg (m3 d)−1 and 0.26 kg m−3 at 5.0 kg (m3 d)−1. The solubilization rate of 40.9% by thermal hydrolysis was confirmed through the lab-scale tests to determine its full-scale applicability.

Bacterial communities change in bulk solution of anaerobic digestion (AD) and bio-electrochemical anaerobic digestion reactors (BEAD) were monitored at each organic loading rate (OLR) to investigate the effect of voltage supply on bacterial species change in bulk solution. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) degradation and methane production from AD and BEAD reactors were also analyzed by gradually increasing food waste OLR. The BEAD reactor maintained stable COD removal and methane production at 6.0 kg/m3·d. The maximum OLR of AD reactor for optimal operation was 4.0 kg/m3·d. pH and alkalinity decline and volatile fatty acid (VFA) accumulation, which are the problem in high load anaerobic digestion of readily decomposable food wastes, were again the major factors destroying the optimal operation condition of the AD reactor at 6.0 kg/m3·d. Contrarily, the electrochemically activated dense communities of exoelectrogenic bacteria and VFA-oxidizing bacteria prevented VFAs from accumulating inside the BEAD reactor. This maintained stable pH and alkalinity conditions, ultimately contributing to stable methane production.

Sapovirus, a member of the Caliciviridae family, is an important cause of acute gastroenteritis in humans and pigs. Currently, the porcine sapovirus (PSaV) Cowden strain remains the only cultivable member of the Sapovirus genus. While some caliciviruses are known to utilize carbohydrate receptors for entry and infection, a functional receptor for sapovirus is unknown. To characterize the functional receptor of the Cowden strain of PSaV, we undertook a comprehensive series of protein-ligand biochemical assays in mock and PSaV-infected cell culture and/or piglet intestinal tissue sections. PSaV revealed neither hemagglutination activity with red blood cells from any species nor binding activity to synthetic histo-blood group antigens, indicating that PSaV does not use histo-blood group antigens as receptors. Attachment and infection of PSaV were markedly blocked by sialic acid and Vibrio cholerae neuraminidase (NA), suggesting a role for α2,3-linked, α2,6-linked or α2,8-linked sialic acid in virus attachment. However, viral attachment and infection were only partially inhibited by treatment of cells with sialidase S (SS) or Maackia amurensis lectin (MAL), both specific for α2,3-linked sialic acid, or Sambucus nigra lectin (SNL), specific for α2,6-linked sialic acid. These results indicated that PSaV recognizes both α2,3- and α2,6-linked sialic acids for viral attachment and infection. Treatment of cells with proteases or with benzyl 4-O-β-D-galactopyranosyl-β-D-glucopyranoside (benzylGalNAc), which inhibits O-linked glycosylation, also reduced virus binding and infection, whereas inhibition of glycolipd synthesis or N-linked glycosylation had no such effect on virus binding or infection. These data suggest PSaV binds to cellular receptors that consist of α2,3- and α2,6-linked sialic acids on glycoproteins attached via O-linked glycosylation.

Importance: Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) binds to particular cell surface receptors to penetrate cells. The virus specifically identifies certain carbohydrate structures present on the surface of the cell to facilitate the binding process. Nevertheless, the influence of viral infections on specific alterations of glycoconjugates in the small intestines remains unexplored. Objective: This work aimed to examine the alterations in glycoconjugates in the small intestines of piglets naturally infected with PEDV using lectin histochemistry. Methods: Six piglets including three PEDV-infected and three non-infected piglets were evaluated. Small intestinal samples were histopathologically examined, and lectin histochemistry was performed. Results: Piglets infected with PEDV had significant histological abnormalities in their small intestines, such as pronounced villous atrophy, varying degrees of villous fusion, and diverse mucosal alterations. Specific regions of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum showed discernible variations in glycoconjugate distribution, as determined by lectin histochemistry. Compared with the controls, the PEDV-infected piglets showed significant changes in N-acetylglucosamine- and galactose-binding lectins (particularly wheat germ agglutinin and Arachis hypogaea (peanut) agglutinin) in multiple intestinal regions. Conclusions and Relevance: These findings can enhance understanding of how viruses such as PEDV impact the glycoconjugate composition of the small intestines and emphasize the potential connection between the pathogenesis of PEDV and glycoconjugate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]