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Tribe Euterpeae is an economically and ecologically important group of Neotropical palms (Arecaceae). Some species are hyperdominant in the Neotropics, and many constitute a good source of revenue. To reconstruct the biogeographical history and diversification of the Euterpeae, we inferred a robust dated molecular phylogenetic hypothesis including 82% of the species sequenced for five DNA regions (trnD-trnT, CISP4, WRKY6, RPB2, and PHYB). Ancestral range was estimated using all models available in BioGeoBEARS and Binary State Speciation and Extinction analysis was used to evaluate the association of biome and inflorescence type with diversification rates. All intergeneric relationships were resolved providing insight on the taxonomic controversy of Jessenia, Euterpe and Prestoea. Three widely distributed Neotropical species were non-monophyletic, inviting a revision of species circumscriptions. The Euterpeae started its diversification in the mid Eocene (40 Mya), with most species-level divergence events occurring in the last 10 million years. Four colonization events from Central to South America were inferred. Different diversification rates were associated with biomes. Lowland rainforest was inferred as the ancestral biome of Euterpeae, attesting to the importance of lowland adapted lineages on the assembly of the montane flora. The two-fold higher speciation rate for montane taxa (compared with lowland rainforest taxa) was contemporaneous to the Andean orogenic uplift. The specialized beetle pollination of Oenocarpus with its hippuriform (horsetail shape) inflorescence was not associated with diversification rates in Euterpeae.

Environmental heterogeneity across the landscape can cause lineage divergence and speciation. The Geonoma macrostachys (Arecaceae) species complex has been proposed as a candidate case of ecological speciation in Amazonia due to evidence of habitat partitioning and pre-zygotic reproductive barriers between co-occurring morphotypes at a local scale. In this study, we provide a continent-wide perspective of the divergence patterns in G. macrostachys by integrating data from morphological traits, target sequence capture, climate, soil and reproductive biology. A morphometric analysis revealed four morphogroups, defined by traits related to leaf shape. A coalescence-based phylogenetic analysis did not recover the morphogroups as monophyletic, indicating independent evolution of leaf shape across geographical space. We demonstrate scale-dependent habitat differentiation for two of the morphogroups, in which segregation driven mostly by climate was complete at the regional scale but incomplete at the continental scale. Contrary to previous evidence of reproductive isolation in the form of different pollinators and flowering times between sympatric G. macrostachys forms in Peru and Ecuador, these were not found in Colombia, suggesting reproductive barriers have evolved multiple times across its geographical range. Taken together, our findings suggest that ecological divergence and local adaptation is driving diversification in G. macrostachys, and that hyperdiverse regions such as Amazonia are probable arenas for ecological divergence in sympatry.

The Caribbean archipelago is the largest and most species rich insular system in the Neotropics, yet the origins of this biodiversity hotspot are poorly understood. Four main hypotheses have been proposed to explain Caribbean diversity: vicariance, GAARlandia landspan, long-distance dispersal, and in situ speciation. Here, we use phylogenetic data and historical biogeographical inferences of Caribbean endemic plants to test amongst these four hypotheses. Together with a revision of Caribbean paleogeography, we compile the colonization times, in situ speciation, and ancestral areas of Caribbean endemic lineages. We model species richness differences among endemic lineages as a function of their colonization time in the Caribbean, resulting in an estimation of the time-for-speciation effect. Our results show that plants repeatedly colonized the West Indies over the last 60 million years from continental America, especially from central and south America. Plant colonization times do not cluster during the GAARlandia timeframe and most colonization events occurred after its putative subsidence. We did not find a relationship between the number of species in each endemic clade and the estimated time when each colonized the Caribbean (no time-for-speciation effect). Published geological constraints from the Lesser Antilles and Aves Ridge fail to support the emergent land between the Antilles and south America.

The Caribbean archipelago is a region with an extremely complex geological history and an outstanding plant diversity with high levels of endemism. The aim of this study was to better understand the historical assembly and evolution of endemic seed plant genera in the Caribbean, by first determining divergence times of endemic genera to test whether the hypothesized Greater Antilles and Aves Ridge (GAARlandia) land bridge played a role in the archipelago colonization and second by testing South America as the main colonization source as expected by the position of landmasses and recent evidence of an asymmetrical biotic interchange. We reconstructed a dated molecular phylogenetic tree for 625 seed plants including 32 Caribbean endemic genera using Bayesian inference and ten calibrations. To estimate the geographic range of the ancestors of endemic genera, we performed a model selection between a null and two complex biogeographic models that included timeframes based on geological information, dispersal probabilities, and directionality among regions. Crown ages for endemic genera ranged from Early Eocene (53.1 Ma) to Late Pliocene (3.4 Ma). Confidence intervals for divergence times (crown and/or stem ages) of 22 endemic genera occurred within the GAARlandia time frame. Contrary to expectations, the Antilles appears as the main ancestral area for endemic seed plant genera and only five genera had a South American origin. In contrast to patterns shown for vertebrates and other organisms and based on our sampling, we conclude that GAARlandia did not act as a colonization route for plants between South America and the Antilles. Further studies on Caribbean plant dispersal at the species and population levels will be required to reveal finer‐scale biogeographic patterns and mechanisms.

Esta investigación busca determinar qué tipo de relación existe entre ansiedad infantil y comprensión del lenguaje en un grupo de niños de 4 y 5 años de edad de Lima Metropolitana. La unidad de análisis es el niño entre los 4 años 0 meses y 5 años 11 meses de un centro educativo inicial de un distrito urbano de Lima Metropolitana. Participaron 76 preescolares (N = 76), 41% niñas (n=31) y 59% niños (n=45), Ẋ = 60 meses (5 años 0 mes); el 38.08% pertenecen al grado de 4 años (n=39) y el 35.97% al grado de 5 años (n=37). La investigación es de nivel básico; por medio de un censo. Instrumentos: 1) Escala de ansiedad para preescolares de Spence (2001), traducida y adaptada para esta población; 2) Prueba de Comprensión del Lenguaje Oral (Roncal, 2010). Se encontró que la correlación Pearson (r = -.295) es negativa con un nivel de significación (p < .01) entre ansiedad y comprensión del lenguaje, con una intensidad leve-mediana. La ansiedad infantil no se ve relacionada por edad o sexo; sin embargo, lenguaje sí está relacionado con la edad: mayor edad, mejor nivel de comprensión del lenguaje oral. Existe una relación negativa con una intensidad leve entre ansiedad y comprensión del lenguaje, para esta población.

Partridgeberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.) is a good source of food and pharmaceutical ingredients, for which cultivation interest is increasing in North America. Nutrition-oriented breeding programs will benefit from an understanding of how the environment affects the biochemical traits of interest in wild populations. Total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant capacity (AC) as measured by the ability to capture free radicals were evaluated simultaneously in leaves and fruit of 56 wild populations across Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. We tested variation in TPC and AC as a function of eight environmental factors, which showed different effects in leaves and fruit. Contrary to our expectations, TPC was not correlated with AC in either leaves or fruit, and mean TPC and AC were higher in fruit than in leaves. We propose a series of environment-based models for the selection of wild populations. Models for fruit involved ecoregion, temperature, and coastal proximity, and explained up to 51% of variation. While leaf models included surface water pH and sensitivity to acid rain, explaining up to 31%. We conclude that wild population selection in the province should target the North Shore Forest ecoregion and warm temperatures for fruit; and regions with low water alkalinity and pH > 6.6 for leaves.

Background Lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.), one of the least studied fruit crops in the Ericaceae family, has a dramatically increased worldwide demand due to its numerous health benefits. Genetic markers can facilitate the selection of berries with desirable climatic adaptations, agronomic and nutritious characteristics to improve cultivation programs. However, no genomic resources are available for this species. Results We used Genotyping-by-Sequencing (GBS) to analyze the genetic variation of 56 lingonberry samples from across Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. To elucidate a potential adaptation to environmental conditions we searched for genotype-environment associations by applying three distinct approaches to screen the identified single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) for correlation with six environmental variables. We also searched for an association between the identified SNPs and two phenotypic traits: the total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant capacity (AC) of fruit. We identified 1586 high-quality putative SNPs using the UNEAK pipeline available in TASSEL. We found 132 SNPs likely associated with at least one of the environmental or phenotypic variables. To obtain insights on the function of the genomic sequences containing the SNPs likely to be associated with the environmental or phenotypic variables, we performed a sequence-based functional annotation and identified homologous protein-coding sequences with functional roles related to abiotic stress response, pathogen defense, RNA metabolism, and, most interestingly, phenolic compound biosynthesis. Conclusions The putative SNPs discovered are the first genomic resource for lingonberry. This resource might prove useful in high-density quantitative trait locus analysis, and association mapping. The identified candidate genes containing the SNPs need further studies on their potential role in local adaptation of lingonberry. Altogether, the present study provides new resources that can be used to breed for desirable traits in lingonberry. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-017-4396-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

International audience; Population and species divergence in South America are usually attributed to geographical barriers in the form of rivers, mountains or climate. In western Amazonia (

International audience; The completion of the genome assembly for the economically important coffee plant Coffea canephora (Rubiaceae) has allowed the use of bioinformatic tools to identify and characterize a diverse array of transposable elements (TEs), which can be used in evolutionary studies of the genus. An overview of the copy number and location within the C. canephora genome of four TEs is presented. These are tested for their use as molecular markers to unravel the evolutionary history of the Millotii Complex, a group of six wild coffee (Coffea) species native to Madagascar. Two TEs from the Gypsy superfamily successfully recovered some species boundaries and geographic structure among samples, whereas a TE from the Copia superfamily did not. Notably, species occurring in evergreen moist forests of eastern and southeastern Madagascawere divergent with respect to species in other habitats and regions. Our results suggest that the peak of transpositional activity of the Gypsy and Copia TEs occurred, respectively, before and after the speciation events of the tested Madagascan species. We conclude that the utilization of active TEs has considerable potential to unravel the evolutionary history and delimitation of closely related Coffea species. However, the selection of TE needs to be experimentally tested, since each element has its own evolutionary history. Different TEs with similar copy number in a given species can render different dendrograms; thus copy number is not a good selection criterion to attain phylogenetic resolution.

With 788 species in 67 genera in the Neotropics, Arecaceae are an important ecological and economic component of the region. We review the influence of geological events such as the Pebas system, the Andean uplift and the land connections between South and Central/North America, on the historical assembly of Neotropical palms. We present a case study of the palm genus Astrocaryum (40 species) as a model for evaluating colonization and diversification patterns of lowland Neotropical taxa. We conducted a Bayesian dated phylogenetic analysis based on four low-copy nuclear DNA regions and a biogeographical analysis using the dispersal, extinction and cladogenesis model. Cladogenesis of Western Amazonian Astrocaryum spp. (c. 6 Mya) post-dated the drainage of the aquatic Pebas system, supporting the constraining role of Pebas on in situ diversification and colonization. The ancestral distribution of Astrocaryum spp. in the Guiana Shield supported the hypothesis of an old formation that acted as a source area from which species colonized adjacent regions, but an earliest branching position for Guianan species was not confidently recovered. A twofold increase in diversification rate was found in a clade, the ancestor of which occupied the Guiana Shield (c. 13 Mya, a time of climatic change and Andean uplift). © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, ●●, ●●–●●.

Plant clades may exhibit little or wide morphological variation as a result of (1) the retention of ancestral characteristics or phylogenetic signal, (2) character displacement, or (3) random phenotypic drift or convergence. Understanding the taxonomy and systematics of many plant lineages has been challenging due to continuous intra- and interspecific morphological variation. To assess which evolutionary hypothesis could explain the morphological diversity in the genus Geonoma (Arecaceae), we performed a Mantel test between phylogenetic and morphological distances of 54 taxa, and tested for phylogenetic signal using Blomberg's K-statistic on continuous variables, and a randomization of character states. To obtain a phylogenetic (patristic) distance matrix for Geonoma, we constructed a molecular phylogeny of tribe Geonomateae using three nuclear DNA regions. A positive relationship between the patristic and a 26-discrete-character distance matrix (R2 = 0.55, P

In the next century, safeguarding plant species against extinction from complete land conversion may require introducing species to novel locations. Although regulatory agencies caution against translocation outside of known historic ranges, when most wild populations and their habitats have been severely altered few viable options may be available for conserving rare plants. We introduced 345 endangered Amorpha herbacea var. crenulata along a pine rockland/transverse glade gradient with similar attributes to historically known occurrences for south Florida, USA, and monitored their survival and growth for five years. The experimental phase addressed: (1) Is the recipient site suitable for colonisation of this species despite hydrological manipulation in the region? (2) Can translocated plants grow equally well in four microhabitats along a gradient within the recipient site? We characterised soil water content, soil nutrient, and vegetation cover to assess the microhabitats at the recipient site. From 2006 to 2008 plants survived in all four microhabitats, but had highest survival in pineland. Translocated plants grew best in microhabitats with less grass cover and higher P content – the pineland and the restoration glade. Through 2008 we observed consistently higher soil water content with less total vegetation cover in pineland and significantly higher P content in the restoration glade. Using 2006–2008 data, we implemented the adaptive management phase, moving 20 plants from the lowest survival microhabitat to the highest survival microhabitat. This tactic improved the survival of plants by 2011, though growth rates of moved plants did not improve. Short-distance translocation, assessing environmental attributes related to plant survival and growth, quantifying similarity of soil, temperature, precipitation, and community as in this study are recommended to evaluate prospective introduction sites for translocations within or outside of range.

Integrating phylogenetic data into macroecological studies of biodiversity patterns may complement the information provided by present-day spatial patterns. In the present study, we used range map data for all Geonoma (Arecaceae) species to assess whether Geonoma species composition forms spatially coherent floristic clusters. We then evaluated the extent to which the spatial variation in species composition reflects present-day environmental variation vs. nonenvironmental spatial effects, as expected if the pattern reflects historical biogeography. We also examined the degree of geographic structure in the Geonoma phylogeny. Finally, we used a dated phylogeny to assess whether species richness within the floristic clusters was constrained by a specific historical biogeographic driver, namely time-for-diversification. A cluster analysis identified six spatially coherent floristic clusters, four of which were used to reveal a significant geographic phylogenetic structure. Variation partitioning analysis showed that 56 percent of the variation in species composition could be explained by spatial variables alone, consistent with historical factors having played a major role in generating the Geonoma diversity pattern. To test for a time-for-diversification effect, we correlated four different species richness measures with the diversification time of the earliest large lineage that is characteristic of each cluster. In support of this hypothesis, we found that geographic areas with higher richness contained older radiations. We conclude that current geographic diversity patterns in Geonoma reflect the present-day climate, but to a larger extent are related to nonenvironmental spatial constraints linked to colonization time, dispersal limitation, and geological history, followed by within-area evolutionary diversification. Abstract in Spanish is available at http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/loi/btp.

Subtropical coastal sand dune ecosystems have been greatly altered by agricultural use, invasive exotic encroachment, urban development, and beach raking, rendering several plant species endangered or threatened. Restoration planning of this ecosystem will benefit from a comprehensive study on how environmental variables change across the coast-to-inland gradient of this ecosystem and it is therefore presented here. We also examined the relationship between the environmental characteristics and plant species composition across the gradient. We used the two largest extents of remaining dune ecosystem on the southeastern coast of Florida, where relatively intact populations of endangered species occur. Vegetation and environmental data were collected from 97 3 × 8 m plots in two sand dune parks along the coast–inland gradient. Soil moisture, most nutrients, cation exchange capacity, and organic matter accumulation increased with distance from the coast, whereas pH and salt spray decreased. The numb...

The Caribbean Islands are one of the world’s 34 biodiversity hotspots, remarkable for its biological richness and the high level of threat to its flora and fauna. The palms (family Arecaceae) are well represented in the West Indies, with 21 genera (three endemic) and 135 species (121 endemic). We provide an overview of phylogenetic knowledge of West Indian Palms, including their relationships within a plastid DNA-based phylogeny of the Arecaceae. We present new data used to reconstruct the phylogeny of tribe Cryosophileae, including four genera found in the West Indies, based on partial sequences of the low-copy nuclear genes encoding phosphoribulokinase (PRK) and subunit 2 of RNA polymerase II (RPB2). Recently published phylogenetic studies of tribe Cocoseae, based on PRK sequences, and tribes Cyclospatheae and Geonomateae, based on PRK and RPB2 sequences, also provide information on the phylogenetic relationships of West Indian palms. Results of these analyses show many independent origins of the West Indian Palm flora. These phylogenetic studies reflect the complex envolutionary history of the West Indies and no single biogeographical pattern emerges for these palms. The present day distributions of West Indian palms suggest complicated evolutionary interchange among islands, as well as between the West Indies and surrounding continents. We identified six palm lineages that deserve conservation priority. Species-level phylogenies are needed for Copernicia, Sabal, and Roystonea before we can build a more complete understanding of the origin and diversification of West Indian palms.

Guidelines designed to aid in the restoration of rare species have been previously proposed using two primary strategies to select individuals for augmentation and reintroduction: mixing progeny from different populations or separating individuals from different populations. Understanding the genetic structure and diversity of an endangered species can offer insights into conservation management strategies. We used random amplified polymorphic DNA markers to assess the genetic structure and diversity of Jacquemontia reclinata, a federally endangered species endemic to Southeastern Florida. We sampled 20 percent of total number of individuals from eight of the ten known wild populations. Across individuals high levels of polymorphic loci (94.7%) were found and larger populations had greater genetic diversity. Cluster and ordination analyses found that one population was genetically differentiated from all the others; this population grows in a unique habitat. Most genetic variation (77.5%) was found within populations, and genetic distances between populations were not explained by their geographic distances. We recommend the use of two management units in restoration programs for J reclinata, one consisting of the genetically differentiated population and the second consisting of the other seven populations sampled.

The latest taxonomic account for the palms of the Amazon recognizes two common and widespread varieties of Geonoma macrostachys (Arecaceae) in western Amazonia: acaulis and macrostachys. These varieties are joined by intermediates, which obscure their taxonomic boundaries. An evaluation of the genetic distinctness between G. macrostachys varieties at a local and regional scale is presented. Thirty-one G. macrostachys individuals were randomly sampled from four Peruvian tropical moist forests. Twenty-seven intersimple sequence repeat (ISSR) primers were used, and all clear and reproducible bands were scored and analysed. Of the 99 ISSR bands produced, 51.52% were polymorphic. Nei’s gene diversity value (H) was 0.2274 and Shannon’s information index (I) was 0.3237. Clustering, ordination, and analyses of molecular variance (AMOVAs) suggested a lack of genetic distinctness between varieties at the regional level. Individuals clustered by geographical provenance, and two main groups were identified. A significant genetic differentiation between sympatric varieties occurred only in the northern locality (ΦST = 0.359, P = 0.000). A hierarchical AMOVA revealed that the genetic diversity in G. macrostachys mainly lies between localities (76.58%). Mantel’s test revealed no significant correlation between the geographical and genetic distances between individuals. We do not support the recognition of the two taxonomic varieties studied. © 2007 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2007, 153, 381–392.

Aim The subduction of the Nazca Plate and the eastward propagation of the Andean orogenic wedge in western Amazonia caused the formation of arches or ridges that have influenced the modern configuration of the upper Amazon drainage and the diversification of biota. We used a lineage of 15 palm species (Astrocaryum sect. Huicungo, Arecaceae) to test two biogeographical hypotheses for lowland plants: (1) that vicariance resulted from tectonically mediated geographical barriers (population contraction), and (2) that recurrent dispersal events (population expansion) produced geographical isolation and subsequent speciation. Location Rain forests of South America. Methods A total of 78 palm individuals were collected in the field, from which five chloroplast and two nuclear DNA fragments were sequenced. We reconstructed a Bayesian dated phylogeny and inferred the demographic history. We used a Bayesian phylogeographical spatial diffusion approach to propose a model of colonization. Results We found a phylogeographical break at c. 5° S between two main clades with crown ages of c. 6.7 and 7.3 Ma located in the Fitzcarrald Arch (FA) and the subsiding northern Amazonian foreland basin (NAFB), respectively. These diversification times were close to the emergence of the FA in the late Miocene, and the coeval development of the transcontinental modern drainage and sedimentation plain of the NAFB. As expected for the recurrent-dispersal hypothesis, lineage delimitations were spatially inconsistent with the location of rivers or ridges, and we found some evidence of past ancestral population expansion supported particularly by the chloroplast sequences. Main conclusions Our results support the biogeographical scenario whereby recurrent dispersal into western Amazonia produced spatial isolation of populations, followed by speciation within two areas of contrasting geological activity: tectonic uplift in the FA versus subsidence in the NAFB. We did not test and cannot rule out ecological speciation within western Amazonia or at finer spatial scales.

acquemontia Choisy is a tropical and subtropical American genus that belongs to the morning-glory family, Convolvulaceae. There are 80 to 100 species in this genus, and J. reclinata House, also known as beach clustervine or beach jacquemontia, is closely related to 3 other threatened or endangered jacquemontias that occur in southern Florida: J. curtisii Hallier, J. havanensis (Jacq.) Urban, and J. pentanthos (Jacq.) G. Don. Jacquemontia reclinata can be distinguished from the other jacquemontias by the presence of tiny hairs along the margins of its outer sepals and by its rather broad succulent leaves (Austin 1979). Jacquemontia reclinata (Figure 1) is a perennial vine with a stem branched at the base and a stout taproot (Small 1934), although we have also observed 1.4 cm (0.56 in) diameter and < 2 m (6.6 ft) long roots protruding in a radial direction and a fibrous root mass (~15 x J Figure 1. Jacquemontia reclinata House (Convolvulaceae) blooming in Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park, Florida. Photo by Samuel J Wright

Among the hypotheses invoked to explain high species richness in tropical forests, the niche differentiation hypothesis has received observational and experimental support (Ashton 1969, Chesson 2000, Clark et al. 1999, Souza & Martins 2004, Svenning 2001, Terborgh & Mathews 1999). Habitat specialization with regard to edaphic factors and topography has been observed in several plant groups including trees, lianas, shrubs, ferns and palms (Clark et al. 1999, Ibarra-Manriquez & Martinez-Ramos 2002, Svenning 1999, Tuomisto & Ruokolainen 1993). Treefall gaps and light gradients have also been found to be important ecological factors affecting plant distribution and niche differentiation in the understory (Chazdon 1986, Poorter & Arets 2003, Terborgh & Mathews 1999). It is suggested that such habitat heterogeneity may not only maintain biodiversity but also may lead to the origin of new species through the process of parapatric speciation (Gentry 1989, Haffer 1997, Patton & Smith 1992).

Crenulate lead plant (Amorpha herbacea Walter var. crenulata (Rydberg) Isely [Fabaceae]) is a South Florida endemic that can be propagated sexually and asexually with success. We found that clean seeds (removed from pods) germinate best and can be frozen for storage. Softwood cuttings, treated with rooting hormone and stuck in perlite under periodic misting, rooted well but sometimes transplanted poorly. Mature plants can be salvaged with success, but because the plants grow on rocky soils the process can be very labor intensive. Establishing new populations of this plant, using these propagation techniques, is another tool for protecting this species.

Due to their wide functionality in military and civil applications, small unmanned aerial vehicles (sUAVs) are becoming more commonly operated in public places, causing direct and indirect human-robot interaction. As these particular robots promise widespread integration into humans' social contexts, it is important to understand how people will perceive them if positive interaction wants to be achieved. In this video, we introduce a sUAV for social environments. "Daedalus" is a quadcopter that has been designed with a special focus in expressing emotional states through interaction features, such as head movements and eye color variation. In order to analyze the robot's capacity to express emotions and people's perception of these states, an experiment was conducted. The sUAV is initially located in a stationary module, the subject approaches the robot, and sits down in front of it, maintaining an interaction distance between 0.5 - 0.7 m. The robot performs 4 different expressions combining head movement and eye color display. After each expression, a psychologist asks the subject two questions: How do you feel? and: What do you think the robot is feeling? For evaluation, subjects must select one of seven cards associated with basic emotions to express and evaluate emotions according to the questions. The preliminary results of this experiment are presented in this video.

Aims Studies integrating phylogenetic history and large-scale community assembly are few, and many questions remain unanswered. Here, we use a global coastal dune plant data set to uncover the important factors in community assembly across scales from the local filtering processes to the global long-term diversification and dispersal dynamics. Coastal dune plant communities occur worldwide under a wide range of climatic and geologic conditions as well as in all biogeographic regions. However, global patterns in the phylogenetic composition of coastal dune plant communities have not previously been studied.

Of all conservation strategies currently practiced throughout the world, reintroductions require the most sophisticated understanding of species biology and ecology (Falk et al. 1996). Whether augmenting existing populations, reintroducing within a species’ known range, or introducing to a location outside the known range, finding optimal sites for long-term survival, growth, reproduction, and establishment of new populations is often “not as self-evident as it might otherwise seem” (Fiedler and Laven 1996, p. 157). Identifying appropriate habitat is essential to establish sustainable populations in existing or new locations, and yet for many species of conservation concern habitat needs are unknown. This uncertainty takes on even more importance in the context of contemporary and projected near-term changes in landscape and regional climate (Giorgi and Francisco 2000; Millar et al. 2007).

Understanding reasons for biodiversity loss is essential for developing conservation and management strategies and is becoming increasingly urgent with climate change. Growing at elevations