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Constructed response matching to sample was used to teach letter sequencing to two children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder who had difficulties in visual recognition of words and letter sequencing. Matching trials displayed letter sequences as samples and a pool of letters. The participants’ task was to construct a sequence identical to a sample that remained present on the screen. An observing response to each sample component was required before selecting the corresponding letter comparison. A hierarchy of cues for self-correction followed incorrect observing responses, and cues were removed after one or two successful trials. Three successive phases trained construction of two, three, and four-letter sequences, respectively. The fourth phase mixed sequences with two, three, and four letters in a random sequence of trials. To evaluate generalized constructed response matching, new sequences were presented without cues for correction of observing and selection responses. Both participants constructed correctly new sequences in the absence of cues, but occasional sequencing errors persisted for one participant. Errors by omission of characters were more frequent and were related to the participant’s tendency to displace responding to the right of the target component.

Gender stereotypes affect both women and men from childhood. Whereas men may be more often associated with STEM careers, women tend to be associated with nurturing and caring careers. The present research used an explicit scale and the Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure to investigate how gender–career relational patterns could vary for Brazilian college students according to their gender and career. Both instruments included the names of careers stereotypically regarded as “male” or “female” and words indicating gender. Participants were divided into four groups (men and women in STEM and the humanities). A significant pro-male–STEM bias emerged for all groups, except the STEM-female group, the only group to show a significant pro-female-STEM bias (p < .05) and a significant difference from the other three groups. A significant implicit pro-men–male career bias was mostly more substantial among male students. In the explicit scales, participants tended to show a more neutral evaluation (not classifying careers as “male” or “female”). Correlations were found between explicit evaluations for male careers and the implicit trial type “women–male careers,” indicating that the more a career was explicitly evaluated as male, the more easily it was related with “women” as false at the implicit level.

The current study investigated the dynamics of arbitrarily applicable relational responding involving emotional pictographs (emojis) used in electronic messages by means of the Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP). College students (N = 41) were trained to establish two classes of equivalent stimuli, each comprising a happy or an angry emoji, and three pseudo-words that presumably became symbols of the emotional pictographs. In a subsequent IRAP test, combinations of symbols (labels) and emojis (targets) generated four trial-types (with the consistent response within parentheses): happy symbol–happy emoji (true); happy symbol–negative emoji (false) negative symbol–happy emoji (false); and negative symbol–negative emoji (true), referred to as trial types 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively. A positive score occurred only for trial-type 1 [happy symbol–happy emoji (true)]. Scores for trial-types 2 and 4 were close to zero, and the score for trial-type 3 [negative symbol-happy emoji (false)] was negative. This negative D-IRAP score means that participants were faster to respond true than false for the combination of negative symbol and happy emoji. These results are discussed in terms of the Differential Arbitrarily Applicable Relational Responding Effects (DAARRE) model. It is hypothesized that the orienting and evoking (functional) properties of the positive target stimulus (happy emoji) and the positive response option (true) had a stronger bearing on participants’ responding in trial type 3 than the relation between the label and target stimuli presented in this trial. We argue that the current study provides an empirical demonstration of a dissonant target trial type effect (DTTTE) that appeared to counter equivalence relations trained within the experimental session and discuss implications for IRAP research.

Rule-governed behavior and derived stimulus relations have always shared strong conceptual links within behavior analysis. However, experimental analysis linking the two domains remains limited. The current study consisted of three experiments that aimed to continue to bridge this experimental gap. The first experiment sought to establish the extent to which a training version of the implicit relational assessment procedure (IRAP) could be used to establish and successfully reverse experimentally established derived relations. The results suggested that the Training IRAP could successfully produce derived reversals. Experiments 2 and 3 explored the extent to which reversed derived relations would control rule-governed behavior when the contingencies for rule-following competed with the rule. In Experiment 2, the task contingencies were immediately in opposition to the (reversed) derived rule, and participants generally responded in accordance with the task contingencies, rather than the rule. In Experiment 3, the task contingencies were initially rule-consistent before a contingency reversal that later made them rule-inconsistent. Here evidence of rule-persistence emerged. The results of the research are considered within the context of a recent framework that has emerged out of RFT for analyzing the dynamics involved in derived relational responding.

At present, there is no clear demonstration of equivalence class formation in elderly participants with neurocognitive disorders. We attempted to establish equivalence classes with a patient with Alzheimer’s disease, starting with relations maintained in her repertoire, so that she could learn by exclusion. After baseline training she acquired arbitrary conditional discriminations and tests suggested the emergence of symmetry and transitivity. Inclusion of a third comparison disrupted performance. Some methodological aspects of this exploratory study may contribute to future research with this particularly challenging population.

This study aimed to verify the role of three parameters on the formation of equivalence classes between Black faces and a positive symbol, in children who demonstrated negative bias toward Black faces in a pretest. Maintenance was also verified 6 weeks after equivalence tests. Forty-six children (11 Black; 27 girls) who demonstrated racial bias in a pretest were divided into four groups. All groups first learned AB relations (A1 and A2 were, respectively, a positive and a negative symbol, and B were abstract stimuli) and then BC relations (C1 was a Black face and C2 was an abstract stimulus). The Control Group then advanced immediately to equivalence tests (AC, and CA, without differential consequences). For the Mixed Training Group, a block of trials mixing AB and BC relations, with differential consequences, preceded equivalence tests. For the Feedback Reduction Group, equivalence tests were preceded by a trial block mixing AB and BC relations, but with feedback in 50% of trials. The Symmetry Group received symmetry tests after training of each baseline relation. Thirty-three children showed class formation relating Black faces and the positive symbol, and 27 maintained at least one of the equivalence relations after 6 weeks. Average biases toward Black faces were positive in a posttest, for participants who formed equivalence classes, and remained negative for those that did not form classes. The Control Group showed less pronounced bias reduction and maintenance of relations after 6 weeks, suggesting that these outcomes may be affected by training parameters.

This article describes a procedure to investigate metaphorical extension of tacts, and reports preliminary data. Six college students learned to choose between four pseudo-words to tact four species (classes) of creature-like pictures. The defining properties controlling the tacts (selections) were color and shape, but two of the species—Clai and Trax—had experimentally manipulated adventitious properties (e.g., wings, hair) whereas the other species, Fite and Dag did not have these properties. In subsequent phases, these adventitious properties were added either to the Fite or to the Dag, and standard tacts were punished with negative feedback. Extension of the tacts "Clai" and "Trax" was observed to Fite and Dag pictures that appeared with the adventitious properties previously associated with Clai or Trax pictures. These metaphorical extensions continued to occur in test phases without differential consequences. These preliminary data show that the procedure has potential to simulate metaphorical extension in the lab and to allow the experimental investigation of variables that affect this phenomenon.

The Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP) has been successfully used to analyze the strength of symbolic relations. Taking advantage of this, Bortoloti, de Almeida, de Almeida, and de Rose (Frontiers in Psychology, 10(954), 2019) reported a higher relational strength in equivalence classes containing happy faces than in those containing negative faces. This so-called happiness superiority effect (HSE) was inferred from an IRAP that included stimuli presented during the equivalence training. Such HSE apparently had a stronger influence on IRAP performance than the equivalence training itself. In this article, we comment on these data and present a new analysis that supports a hypothesis raised by Bortoloti et al. (Frontiers in Psychology, 10(954), 2019) to account for a surprising IRAP performance in their experiment. Based on this, we discuss new avenues for the investigation of properties of relational responding using the IRAP.

Matching-to-sample (MTS) is a widely used instrumental procedure for teaching reading and writing skills to beginning readers, in particular across stimulus equivalence research. Recent works suggests that stimulus-stimulus (S-S) pairing procedures incorporating orienting responses (SOresp) may also establish equivalence classes effectively. In brief, the “SOresp” involves sequences of S-S pairs following an orienting requirement (clicking on a fixation-cross that signals location of stimulus onsets). We investigated the efficacy of the SOresp using printed words (C) linked with referent pictures (B) with four children with reading deficits. Stimuli included six printed words (C1, C2 . . . C6) and their corresponding pictures (B1, B2 . . . B6) divided into two sets of three S-S pairs (Set 1: C1-B1, C2-B2, C3-B3; Set 2: C4-B4, C5-B5, C6-B6). For each stimulus set, the sequence was organized in 36-trial blocks (12 trials for each stimulus pair), repeated three to four times (108–144 trials per stimulus set). Training trials involved participants clicking on a fixation-cross presented in one of the four corners of the screen, followed by the presentation of a C-B sequence from one of three pairs (e.g., the printed word “LUA”—an image of the moon). Probe trials provided evidence for reading acquisition, and partial or total retention of the emergent reading, across all children, after a maximum of 144 teaching trials per set. A second experiment replicated and extended these findings with two additional children using a multiple probe design and three stimulus sets. These results have significant implications for educational interventions based on relational learning.

In exploring the extent to which the Implicit Relational Assessment procedure (IRAP) may function as a measure of the derived transformation of functions, it is important to determine if it is also sensitive to particular moderating variables. This was the purpose of the current study, which focused on manipulating three different motivating conditions related to stimuli presented during the IRAP task. First, two equivalence classes were established: A1-B1-C1-D1 and A2-B2-C2-D2. These classes comprised nonsense forms (B, C, and D) and two meaningful stimuli: a picture of a glass full of water (A1) and a neutral picture (A2). Derived transformation of function from the meaningful stimuli to two nonsense forms (D1 and D2) was then assessed by means of a semantic differential and an IRAP. Before assessment, participants were divided in three groups: the first had water intake; the second had pepper; the third had pepper before the semantic differential, followed by an extra dose before the IRAP testing blocks. Results suggest that the motivative conditions progressively affected both measures. Regarding the semantic differential, D1 (water) and D2 (neutral) stimuli were close to neutrality for the Water group; for the Pepper and Double Pepper groups, however, the D1 (water) stimulus had a positive valence whereas D2 (neutral) was neutral. In the IRAP, both the Water and Pepper group evaluated D1 as positive; nonetheless, for the Double Pepper group, IRAP scores revealed that D1 was even more positive compared to the other groups. Implications for the IRAP are discussed in terms of the DAARRE model.

O filme Rashômon, dirigido por Akira Kurosawa e lançado em 1950, costuma estar presente em todas as listas de melhores filmes de todos os tempos elaboradas por conhecedores de cinema. Vários personagens do filme narram o mesmo evento, mas os testemunhos são completamente diferentes. Neste artigo tratamos os personagens como se fossem pessoas reais. Seus relatos são, assim, tratados como se fossem comportamento verbal de pessoas reais, sujeitas a contingências reais. Podemos nos perguntar, então, quais seriam as variáveis responsáveis pelas discrepâncias nas histórias. Neste caso, é possível fazer conjecturas e hipóteses, mas falta um elemento essencial para aferir nossas hipóteses: como só poderíamos saber o que aconteceu com base no relato das testemunhas, e como não há confirmação independente dos detalhes da história, não podemos avaliar o quanto as descrições estão de fato sob controle dos presumidos acontecimentos

Results of previous studies that modeled the influence of transfer of functions over preference for brands showed that adults and children choose more frequently a container labeled with symbols equivalent to stimuli with positive valence when containers had the same food or drink in them. The present study was conducted to verify whether such preferences involved transfer both of positive and negative valences. Fourteen children formed three equivalence classes containing a liked cartoon character, a neutral picture, and a disliked character, respectively. The other class members were geometrical forms and arbitrary stimuli. Three preference tests followed class formation: children chose between two pieces of the same snack, differing by the label on the container—C1 (equivalent to the liked character), C2 (equivalent to the neutral picture), and C3 (equivalent to the disliked character). Choices in Tests 1, 2, and 3 were between, respectively, C1 and C3; C2 and C3; and C1 and C2. In Test 1, all children preferred the snack labeled with C1, and most children also preferred, in Test 3, the snack labeled with C1 over the one labeled with C2. It is surprising that in Test 2 there was more preference for the snack labeled with C3, equivalent to the disliked character. Results confirmed the preference for the brand equivalent to the liked character, but suggested that children may prefer brands equivalent to a cartoon character over neutral ones, even when the character is disliked.

This brief communication reports preliminary findings of a study conducted to investigate the relationship between probability discounting and people’s adherence to preventive behaviors recommended during the COVID-19 pandemic. A sample of 112 adults living in Brazil completed an online survey composed of a Probability Discounting Questionnaire (PDQ) and a 10-item assessment of how often they complied with the health authorities’ recommendations (e.g., wash the hands frequently, practice social distancing, stay at home as much as possible, wear a mask when in public). Data analysis included the participants who showed higher (n = 40) and lower (n = 40) adherence to preventive behaviors. Results revealed that probability discounting measures are related to people’s preventive actions. Participants in the higher adherence group present significantly larger risk aversion indices (i.e., larger h values) than participants in the lower adherence group. Also, participants who showed lower adherence to preventive behaviors were more likely to perform risky choices in the PDQ than participants who demonstrated higher compliance with health authorities’ recommendations. These preliminary results suggest that probability discounting can play an essential role in people’s self-protective decisions during a global health emergency, such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

Under the leadership of Steven Hayes, Contextual Behavioral Science (CBS) became a vigorous field. Relational Frame Theory (RFT), Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), and CBS in general brought huge advances to our understanding of human behavior. This commentary discusses to what extent CBS, as a “distinct wing of behavioral science,” continues (or should continue) to be part of behavior analysis. Focusing specially on RFT, with which I have more familiarity, I argue that RFT brought significant advances to behavior analysis and continues to be part of it, growing continually in acceptance and influence among behavior analysts. Admitting that the establishment of CBS as a distinct wing had many positive effects, mentioned in Hayes’ chapter, I believe that contextual behavioral scientists continue to have much to learn from mainstream behavior analysis (and also much to teach), so that there will be negative consequences for both sides if the distinct wing flies away from the body.

Correlating eating-related words (CS) with positively valenced words (US+) may augment eating-associated motivational responses (e.g., preingestive salivation) with minimal CS knowledge. We tested this claim using a subliminal conditioning procedure, where CS and US were presented under subliminal and supraliminal visual conditions. Three groups of Brazilian undergraduates (N = 69) viewed eating-related words (CS) or their scrambled counterparts (non-CS) followed by positive (US+) or neutral (US-) words. A free-selection visibility check confirmed that subliminally presented CS and non-CS had not been detected by any group. Participants exposed to CS/US+ pairings produced significantly more saliva relative to participants exposed to CS/US- and non-CS/US+ pairings. Reliable induction of salivation, coupled with null outcomes across evaluation measures, suggests that affective information related to eating can subliminally augment preingestive salivation with minimal deliberation.

We examined equivalence-based N400 effects by comparing EEG data from participants with different experiences with equivalence testing. Before a priming task used in EEG measurement, Group 1 was given only matching-to-sample training trials whereas Group 2 was exposed to matching-to-sample training and equivalence probe trials. We asked whether exposure to the reinforcement contingency was sufficient to bring about an N400 outcome that might indicate potentially emergent equivalence relations or if such a response depended on experience with equivalence tests. Results showed robust N400 in both groups. Experience with equivalence tests did not further increase the N400 effects. Our findings add confirmatory evidence that equivalence relations may originate via the reinforcement contingency alone. Furthermore, complementary EEG data collected from priming tasks involving words from natural language showed functional overlap between laboratory-defined equivalence and natural word-based N400 effects.

In the current research, we aimed at extending Silveira et al. (2016) results by verifying whether the long-term maintenance of the equivalence classes is influenced by stimulus valence and MTS training procedures. The delayed and simultaneous MTS were used to train two groups of participants in series of conditional relation trials involving pictures of humans’ faces expressing familiar emotions (A) and abstract forms (B, C, and D). The participants that demonstrated the emergence of novel BD and DB relations and class-consistent derived transfer of functions returned to the laboratory thirty days later. Follow-up assessments were given in which the probability of class-consistent responses was higher for the happy class only for participants exposed to DMTS training. This result shows that the maintenance of equivalence classes cannot be accounted for only in terms of the affective valence of the familiar stimulus. The affective valence of the happy faces may have yoked with the properties of DMTS, favoring the maintenance of the happy class. Thereby, we discussed the role of mediating verbal behavior evoked selectively by the pictures of happy faces appearing as samples that may have persisted during the delay interval as a possible mechanism underlying performances of participants trained in DMTS procedure.

Studies on equivalence relations have suggested that abstract symbols might acquire emotional functions when related to facial expressions. The present study aimed to investigate the transformation of emotional functions from facial expressions of fear and of happiness to abstract stimuli via equivalence relations. A delayed matching-to-sample task established two equivalence classes between facial expressions of emotions and nonsense abstract stimuli: A1(Fear)-B1-C1-D1; A2(Happiness)-B2-C2-D2. After relational training (AB, AC, CD) and equivalence tests (BD, DB), the participants evaluated the meaning of one nonsense stimulus from each class (D1 and D2) by means of a semantic differential and an Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP). Results from both the semantic differential and the IRAP supported the conclusion that the emotional functions of the faces, in terms of fear and happiness, had transformed via the equivalence classes to the D stimuli. Results are discussed in terms of the dynamics of arbitrarily applicable relational responding.

A recent report by Amd et al. (2017) demonstrated that orienting towards successively presented stimulus-stimulus pairs yielded significantly more transitive relations then when those same pairs were differentially reinforced following training for three, 3-member stimulus sets. We build on that work in four important ways. First, transitivity yields produced by Pavlovian and instrumental procedures were compared following training for three 5-member sets (A1-B1-C1-D1-E1, A2-B2-C2-D2-E2, A3-B3-C3-D3-E3), where the 'A' stimuli were emotional faces and all remaining stimuli were nonsense words. Second, our instrumental task here required two orienting/observing responses per trial. Third, we compared differences in multi-nodal transfer following Pavlovian and instrumental relational learning procedures. Finally, we tested whether functioning as 'end terms' in a relational series can mitigate transfer following instrumental conditioning. Transitivity, as measured by sorting tests, was significantly more pronounced following Pavlovian training. Transfer, assessed before and after relational training with two visual analog scales corresponding to valence and arousal dimensions, appeared marginally more robust observed for participants exposed to the Pavlovian condition. Transfer magnitude was positively related with demonstrations of transitivity, regardless of type of conditioning.

This study investigated the influence of character on food's choices. Eleven preschool children were trained to form two equivalent stimulus classes, each comprising one a cartoon character, a geometric shape, and an abstract symbol. One class had a liked character and the other a disliked character. Three preference tests were conducted where the children had to choose between two identical packages with samples of the same snack, differing only by the label. In Test 1 the labels were symbols of the same class as the liked and disliked characters; in Test 2 the choice was between the symbol of the same class as the disliked character and a new symbol; and in Test 3 children chose between the symbol of the equivalence class with the liked character and the logo of a known brand. Most children chose first, and reported to like more, the snack labeled with the symbol of the same class as the liked character. They also chose, and reported to like more, the snack labeled with a new stimulus over the symbol of the same class as the disliked character. These results confirmed that stimulus equivalence is a useful paradigm to investigate formation of preference for brands. Resumo Esta pesquisa investigou a influência de personagens em escolhas alimentares. Doze crianças pré-escolares formaram inicialmente duas classes de estímulos equivalentes, cada uma contendo um personagem, uma forma geométrica e um símbolo abstrato. Uma das classes continha um personagem de que a criança gostava e a outra de que a criança não gostava. Três testes de escolha alimentar foram conduzidos nos quais o participante deveria escolher entre duas embalagens idênticas com o mesmo alimento, diferindo somente o rótulo. No Teste 1, os rótulos continham os símbolos da classe do personagem atrativo e não atrativo; No Teste 2, a escolha era entre o símbolo da classe do personagem não atrativo e um símbolo novo; e no Teste 3 a escolha era entre o símbolo da classe do personagem atrativo e o logo de uma marca conhecida. A maioria das crianças escolheu e demonstrou preferência pelo alimento com o símbolo equivalente ao personagem de que gostava. Também escolheram e disseram gostar mais do alimento com o símbolo novo no rótulo ao invés do que continha o símbolo equivalente ao personagem não atrativo. Os resultados apontam a equivalência de estímulos como uma abordagem útil para investigar a formação de preferência por marcas. Resumen Este estudio investigó la influencia de los personajes en la elección de alimentos. 12 niños preescolares formaran dos clases de estímulos equivalentes, contiendo a un personaje infantil, una forma geométrica, y a un símbolo abstracto. Una clase tenía un personaje que le gustaba al niño y la otra un personaje que no le gustaba. Tres testes de preferencia fueron conducidos, en los que los niños tenían que escoger entre dos pedazos de la misma galleta, diferenciándose sólo por la etiqueta en el recipiente. En el Test 1, las etiquetas eran símbolos equivalentes al personaje que favorito y al que no le gustaba; en el Test 2, la elección fue entre el símbolo equivalente al personaje que no le gustaba y un símbolo nuevo; y en el Test 3, nos niños escogían entre el símbolo equivalente al personaje favorito y el logotipo de una marca conocida. La mayoría de los niños escogió primero, y prefirieron, la galleta etiquetada con el símbolo equivalente al personaje favorito. También escogieron, y prefirieron, la galleta etiquetada con el estímulo nuevo que con el símbolo equivalente al personaje que no les gustaba. Estos resultados confirmaron que la equivalencia de estímulos es un paradigma útil para investigar la formación de preferencia por las marcas.

O presente estudo teve como objetivo investigar a transformação de significado de palavras sem sentido via relações de comparação estabelecidas com faces alegres. Adultos foram expostos a um treino em que duas figuras abstratas tinham função de dicas contextuais de comparação, controlando diferencialmente a escolha de diferentes quantidades de objetos. Em seguida, tais figuras foram utilizadas para estabelecer a seguinte rede relacional de comparação envolvendo palavras sem sentido e faces alegres: A < B < FACE ALEGRE < D < E. Depois de estabelecidas as relações arbitrárias de comparação e testadas as relações derivadas (e.g., A < E, E > A), os participantes avaliaram o significado dos estímulos A e E por meio do (a) diferencial semântico, de um (b) teste de preferência e do (c) IRAP. Os resultados do diferencial semântico demonstraram transformação de função dos estímulos A e E em acordo com relações de comparação. Neste instrumento, o estímulo E foi avaliado pelos participantes como mais positivo que o estímulo A, resultado confirmado estatisticamente quando comparado às avaliações do grupo controle. Os testes de preferência, embora tenham variado entre participantes, apresentam uma tendência de evitação do estímulo A e de preferência pelo estímulo E. Diferentemente das medidas anteriores, não foi possível verificar uma diferença clara entre as avaliações dos estímulos A e E por meio do IRAP, sendo ambos avaliados como igualmente positivos em termos de medida implícita. Os resultados observados demonstram que apesar de A ser avaliado como menos alegre do que E, este não foi considerado triste, produzindo a inconsistência observada no IRAP

Com base nas considerações do livro Verbal Behavior (Skinner, 1957), este trabalho faz uma análise funcional do humor verbal em quatro paródias decorrentes do poema “Canção do Exílio” de Gonçalves Dias (1846). A análise funcional se deu pela identificação dos prováveis estímulos antecedentes aos operantes utilizados nos textos e das consequências que podem ter controlado o comportamento dos autores das paródias. Também foram identificadas as fontes formais e temáticas de cada obra e apontadas as causas do efeito humorístico pretendido pelos autores das paródias. Verificou-se que o contexto e o timing são de suma importância para gerar humor e as variáveis controladoras (fontes) suplementam o contexto de forma específica, gerando o efeito humorístico. Concluiu-se que a análise é passível de extensão para o campo não verbal, que o riso é uma consequência mantenedora da resposta “humorística” e não o com¬portamento.

The emergence of transitive relations between stimuli that had never appeared together is a key process underlying concept formation. An unresolved theoretical issue with respect to transitive relations has been to determine whether differential reinforcement of stimulus-stimulus (S-S) relations though matching-to-sample, or contiguous S-S correlations/pairings, is more critical for producing transitivity. The current study inquired whether simple environmental S-S pairings, versus differential reinforcement of S-S relations, versus environmental S-S pairings with an orientation requirement, produced the greatest instances of transitivity. 12 groups of participants were parsed into one of four procedures (matching-to-sample, stimulus-paring, stimulus-pairing-w/response, stimulus-pairing-w/orientation) along one of three training structures (linear, many-to-one, one-to-many). All participants underwent a fixed number of training trials for establishing three, three-member stimulus sets (A1B1C1, A2B2C2, A3B3C3), followed by a single sorting test for AC transitivity. Our results demonstrate orienting towards environmental S-S pairings yield the greatest degree of transitivity. The effectivity of pairing procedures for establishing transitive relations, particularly when compared to matching-to-sample, can inform the development of educational interventions for individuals for whom the latter procedure (involving differential reinforcement) is ineffective.

Seven participants received conditional discrimination training that established the 12 conditional relations A1B1, A2B2, A3B3, A1C1, A2C2, A3C3, D1E1, D2E2, D3E3, D1F1, D2F2, and D3F3. The A stimuli were pictures of faces portraying emotional expressions; the others were arbitrary forms. Correct responses resulted in presentations of class-specific reinforcers, Sr1, Sr2, and Sr3. After training, tests confirmed the formation of ABC and DEF equivalence classes. Further tests then documented the merger of the classes and the emergence of SrB, SrC, SrE, and SrF relations, showing that the class-specific reinforcers were equivalence class members. Finally, participants did Semantic Differential ratings that tested whether the emotional valence of the A stimuli transferred to the arbitrary forms, B and E. The results show that participants' evaluations of the B and E stimuli were similar to evaluations of the A stimuli made by participants of a control group. This finding is considered as a demonstration that class-specific outcomes can mediate class merger phenomena and the transfer of functions through members of merged classes.

According to Relational Frame Theory (RFT) Crel denotes a contextual stimulus that controls a particular type of relational response (sameness, opposition, comparative, temporal, hierarchical etc.) in a given situation. Previous studies suggest that contextual functions may be indirectly acquired via transfer of function. The present study investigated the transfer of Crel contextual control through equivalence relations. Experiment 1 evaluated the transfer of Crel contextual functions for relational responses based on sameness and opposition. Experiment 2 extended these findings by evaluating transfer of function using comparative Crel stimuli. Both experiments followed a similar sequence of phases. First, abstract forms were established as Crel stimuli via multiple exemplar training (Phase 1). The contextual cues were then applied to establish arbitrary relations among nonsense words and to test derived relations (Phase 2). After that, equivalence relations involving the original Crel stimuli and other abstract forms were trained and tested (Phase 3). Transfer of function was evaluated by replacing the directly established Crel stimuli with their equivalent stimuli in the former experimental tasks (Phases 1 and 2). Results from both experiments suggest that Crel contextual control may be extended via equivalence relations, allowing other arbitrarily related stimuli to indirectly acquire Crel functions and regulate behavior by evoking appropriate relational responses in the presence of both previously known and novel stimuli.

Esta pesquisa investigou em que medida a equivalência entre personagens e marcas pode influenciar a escolha por alimentos. Também buscou-se verificar a estabilidade da formação de classes e transferência de função. 11 crianças pré-escolares foram submetidas a um procedimento de emparelhamento com o modelo para a formação de duas classes de equivalência (A1B1C1 e A2B2C2) na qual uma continha um personagem de que ela gostava (A1) e outro de que ela não gostava (A2). Os demais estímulos eram figuras geométricas (B1 e B2) e símbolos abstratos (C1 e C2). Após a formação de classes, foram conduzidos três testes de escolha e preferência que consistiam em oferecer aos participantes dois alimentos idênticos em embalagens com rótulos diferentes. No Teste 1, os rótulos eram C1 e C2; No Teste 2, C2 e um símbolo novo; e no Teste 3, C1 e um outro símbolo novo. Após duas semanas, estes testes, assim como os de formação de classes de equivalência, foram repetidos. A maioria das crianças escolheu e demonstrou preferência pelo alimento com o símbolo equivalente ao personagem de que ela gostava (C1). Os Testes 2 e 3 foram inconclusivos. Os testes de manutenção indicaram estabilidade na formação das classes e transferência de função. Conclui-se que a equivalência de estímulos é um paradigma comportamental útil para investigação de atitudes e preferências por produtos.

Estudos anteriores confirmaram a emergência de relações de equivalência a partir das discriminações condicionais treinadas no procedimento matching-to-sample (MTS). Também se verificou a emergência de classes de equivalência após o estabelecimento de discriminações condicionais entre as unidades de estímulos compostos apresentados em treinos de discriminações simples sucessivas. Os protocolos de treino de discriminação simples simultânea com estímulos compostos não estão sendo devidamente explorados, a despeito das evidências de sua eficácia para o estabelecimento de discriminações condicionais entre os elementos dos estímulos compostos e relações de equivalência. O objetivo dessa pesquisa foi verificar o estabelecimento de classes de equivalência a partir de um treino de discriminações simples simultâneas. Cinco universitários foram ensinados a responder diferencialmente aos estímulos compostos “corretos” e “incorretos”, que eram apresentados em uma tarefa de discriminação simples simultânea. Três participantes atingiram o critério no treino AB e AC e foram submetidos ao teste AC e CA. O teste foi conduzido no formato MTS, no qual os elementos dos estímulos compostos foram isolados e apresentados com estímulos-modelo ou como estímulos de comparação. Dois participantes atingiram o critério de 90% de acertos nos testes e um participante ficou um pouco abaixo deste critério. As performances de dois participantes confirmaram a previsão de que classes de equivalência se originariam a partir deste procedimento, o que confirma a efetividade de procedimentos alternativos ao MTS para o tratamento empírico do fenômeno da formação de classes de equivalência.

As emoções estão diretamente envolvidas em comportamentos importantes para a preservação e a reprodução da espécie. É sabido que estímulos originalmente neutros não diretamente relacionados com a sobrevivência e a procriação, como os símbolos, podem, também, controlar respostas emocionais, ainda que sem treino direto. Neste artigo foram discutidos a importância do estudo das emoções e como o ser humano aprende a responder emocionalmente a estímulos inicialmente não diretamente relacionados a eventos emocionais. Foram apresentados resultados de uma linha de pesquisa que, empregando o paradigma da equivalência de estímulos, investigou como estímulos emocionais, ao se tornarem membros de classes de equivalência, transferem seus significados a estímulos neutros. Os resultados dos estudos descritos demonstram como estímulos emocionais influenciam na maneira como atribuímos significado a símbolos e indicam variáveis relevantes para o estabelecimento, modificação e manutenção destes significados. O estudo combinado das emoções e do comportamento simbólico, a partir de um diálogo interdisciplinar entre psicologia evolutiva e análise do comportamento, pode contribuir para o entendimento de aspectos evolutivos e culturais que influenciam o comportamento humano.

A meaningless symbol that repeatedly co-occurs with emotionally salient faces (US) can transform into a valenced symbol (CS). US-to-CS valence transformations have been observed for CS that have been directly (US→CS0) and indirectly (US→CS0→CS1→CS2) linked with face US. The structure of a US→CS0→CS1→CS2 series may be conceptualized in terms of “nodal distance,” where CS0, CS1, and CS2 are 0, 1, and 2 nodes from the US respectively. Increasing nodal distance between an evaluated CS and its linked US can reduce magnitude of observed CS valence transformations. We explored currently whether nodal distance can influence CS valence extinction, which describes reductions in CS valence following repeated exposures to CS without any accompanying US. In our study, faces with happy/neutral/sad expressions (US) were directly linked with nonsense words (US→CS0). The directly linked CS0 was concurrently linked with other words (CS0→CS1, CS1→CS2). Subjects evaluated all stimuli before and after conditioning, then continued to provide CS evaluations twice a week for 6 weeks. Bayesian factors provided credible evidence for the transformation and extinction of CS valences that were 0 and 1 nodes from US (all BF10’s > 100). The variability across post-conditioning CS evaluations provides indirect evidence for context-sensitive/propositional and structural/associative operations during CS evaluations.

Equivalência de estímulos tem sido adotada como uma explicação comportamental das falsas memórias. Este estudo teve por objetivo testar falsas memórias usando listas compostas por estímulos de classes de equivalência. No presente estudo, 10 estudantes universitários aprenderam três classes de equivalência com quatro estímulos (Classes 1, 2, 3) e três com 12 estímulos (Classes 4, 5 e 6). Uma semana depois esses participantes realizaram um teste de reconhecimento. Primeiro viram uma lista de estudo composta de 10 dos 12 estímulos das Classes 4, 5 e 6. Depois viram uma lista com todos os estímulos da lista de estudos (alvos), os demais estímulos das Classes 4, 5 e 6 (distratores críticos), e nove estímulos das Classes 1, 2 e 3 (distratores não-relacionados). Devido à relação de equivalência entre os alvos e os distratores críticos, era esperado que os participantes reconhecessem os segundos na mesma proporção dos primeiros, porém os resultados indicaram que os críticos e não relacionados foram reconhecidos na mesma proporção e em níveis baixos. Equivalencia de estímulos ha sido adoptada como explicación conductual de las falsas memorias. El presente estudio tuvo por objetivo probar falsas memorias usando listas compuestas por estímulos de clases de equivalencia. 10 estudiantes universitarios aprendieron tres clases de equivalencia con cuatro estímulos (Clases 1, 2, 3) y tres con 12 estímulos (Clases 4, 5, 6). Una semana después, realizaron un test de reconocimiento. Primero, vieron una lista de estudio con 10 de los 12 estímulos de las Clases 4, 5 y 6. Después, vieron una lista con todos los estímulos de la lista de estudios (targets), los demás estímulos de las Clases 4, 5 y 6 (distractores críticos), y nueve estímulos de las Clases 1, 2 y 3 (distractores no-relacionados). Debido a la relación de equivalencia entre targets y distractores críticos, era esperado que fuesen reconocidos los segundos en la misma proporción de los primeros, pero los resultados indicaron que fueron reconocidos en cantidades semejantes y en niveles bajos los críticos y no-relacionados. Stimulus equivalence has been adopted as a behavioral explanation for false memories. The present study aimed to test false memories using lists compound of equivalent stimuli. 10 undergraduate students learned three 4-member (Classes 1, 2, 3) and three 12-member equivalence classes (Classes 4, 5, 6). A week later these participants performed a recognition test. Participants first saw a study list comprising 10 of the 12 stimuli from Classes 4, 5 and 6. Later, they saw a list comprising all stimuli from study list (targets), the remaining stimuli from the Classes 4, 5 and 6 (critical lures) and nine stimuli from Classes 1, 2 and 3 (non-related lures). Due to the equivalence relation between targets and critical lure, it was expected that the second would be recognize as much as the first, but results indicated critical and non-related lures where equally recognized and at low levels.

Several studies used the stimulus equivalence paradigm to investigate attitudes toward socially relevant stimuli. In one of these studies, de Carvalho and de Rose (The Psychological Record 64: 527–536, 2014) used matching-to-sample (MTS) training to establish equivalence relations between a positive symbol and faces of individuals of African descent (toward which children showed negative bias prior to the research). Only one of four children showed the intended classes. The present study manipulated training parameters to increase the yield of equivalence classes comprising relations contrary to children’s previous racial bias. Thirteen children learned matching tasks that would potentially establish equivalence relations between Black faces and positive symbols, contrary to their preexperimental bias. All 13 children showed equivalence class formation, and nine of them maintained relations between Black faces and positive symbols in a different and more stringent test. Children’s evaluations of the faces with the Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) showed a pronounced negative bias toward Black faces before training. After class formation, however, the difference between evaluations of Black and White faces was no longer statistically significant. These results showed that procedures based on equivalence and transfer of functions may contribute to educational programs designed to decrease racial biases, a significant challenge for our increasingly multicultural and multiracial societies.

The present study established three equivalence classes (each comprising nonfamiliar stimuli and a facial expression of emotion) and verified transfer of function among equivalent stimuli with a semantic differential in order to investigate stability over time of both equivalence classes and of transfer of functions. Nonfamiliar stimuli were abstract pictures and the emotions of the facial expression were happiness, anger, and neutrality. A control group evaluated the familiar stimuli from each class. Sixteen college students attained criteria for equivalence class formation. Their evaluations of the nonfamiliar abstract stimuli were similar to the evaluation that control group made of the facial expressions. Thirty days later, participants from the experimental group were resubmitted to the equivalence tests and to the semantic differential device. During maintenance tests, 11 participants attained criterion for maintenance of the happy class, 8 participants for the neutral class, and 6 for the angry class. Participants who maintained performance on equivalence tests maintained performances on the semantic differential device. Participants who failed on maintenance tests also deviated from previous performances on the test for transfer of function. Results indicated valence of stimuli influenced stability of equivalence classes and transfer of function.

We evaluated the effects of tact and listener instruction on the emergence of bidirectional intraverbal relations with 6 typically developing Brazilian children, using an adapted alternating treatment design with pretest and posttest probes. In listener instruction, participants selected pictures that corresponded to spoken foreign-language words. For tact instruction, children had to vocalize foreign words in the presence of the corresponding pictures. After meeting mastery criteria, bidirectional intraverbal tests assessed vocalizations in Portuguese (native language) following the presentation of the equivalent words in English (foreign language) and vice versa. Tact instruction consistently produced higher levels of emergent intraverbal responding compared to listener instruction, confirming results from previous studies.

No Experimento 1, seis participantes foram treinados em um procedimento MTS de identidade (IDMTS) para estabelecer relações estímulo-estímulo A1A1, A2A2, A3A3; B1B1, B2B2, B3B3; e C1C1, C2C2, C3C3. Respostas corretas resultavam na apresentação de consequências específicas, Sr1, Sr2 e Sr3. Uma resposta de consumação às consequências específicas foi requerida para que os participantes pudessem coletar os pontos nas tentativas de treino. O procedimento MTS arbitrário foi utilizado para documentar a formação de três classes de equivalência A1B1C1Sr1, A2B2C2Sr2 e A3B3C3Sr3. Em uma fase subsequente, o IDMTS com consequências específicas foi empregado para treinar as relações D1D1, D2D2 e D3D3. Os estímulos D eram fotografias de faces humanas expressando alegria (D1), tristeza (D2) e neutralidade (D3). Por último, avaliações por meio do diferencial semântico atestaram a ocorrência da transferência das funções (i.e., “significados”) dos estímulos D para os estímulos C e para Sr1 e Sr3. Estes resultados sugeriram que as classes ABCSr se expandiram para incluir os estímulos significativos D (i.e., A1B1C1D1Sr1, A2B2C2D2Sr2 e A3B3C3D3Sr3). No Experimento 2 verificou-se que, para cinco participantes, o procedimento de reversão das consequências específicas Sr1 e Sr2 em relação aos estímulos C1, C2 e D1 e D2 deu origem a duas classes de equivalência reorganizadas (A1B1C2D2Sr2 e A2B2C1D1Sr1). Paralelamente, os dados do diferencial semântico documentaram a reversão dos significados atribuídos previamente aos estímulos D1 e D2. Estes achados sugerem que o procedimento de reversão reorganizou as classes de estímulos bem como seus significados. Porém, resultados análogos não foram reportados para as consequências específicas.Palavras-chave: Matching-to-sample de identidade, consequências específicas, classes de equivalência, reorganização de classes de equivalência, transferência de função, universitários

When derived stimulus relations are established, stimulus functions are altered. The present study aimed to verify whether arbitrary symbols related to meaningful stimuli (facial expressions of happiness) would have their meaning transformed in accordance with relations of sameness or opposition. The experiment started with training to establish the meaning of two contextual cues, one for sameness and one for opposition. Then, using these contextual cues, one pair of stimuli was related as same (B1) or opposite (B2) to six photos containing different people expressing happiness (A stimulus set, A1-A6). Following this training, two other stimuli were related as same (C1) and opposite (C2), respectively, to B1. Participants were tested for derived relations and then the transformation of functions from the happy pictures to B1, B2, C1, and C2 was verified using a semantic differential and the Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP). Results from the semantic differential happy/sad scale, taken together with IRAP, indicated the transformation of stimulus functions: Arbitrary stimuli acquired a meaning similar or opposite to the happy faces, according to the trained or derived relations of sameness or opposition.

In this study, 4 school children learned AB, BC, and CD matching relations between three samples and three comparisons. In Condition A, which attempted to ensure development of both sample-S+ and sample-S- controlling relations, trials displayed the sample, the mask, and one comparison (either the S+ or 1 of the possible S-s). Condition B attempted to prevent development of sample-S+ relations in the BC conditional discrimination. It was similar to Condition A except that trials for relation BC always displayed the sample, mask, and S-. Results showed a high probability of equivalence class formation when the structure of trials ensured sample-S+ and sample-S- controlling relations in baseline. Equivalence classes were not formed when sample-S+ relations were prevented in one of the baseline relations. This study confirms previous results suggesting that stimulus equivalence is more probable when the baseline guarantees both sample-S+ and sample-S- relations.

Deriving the good of the culture from his explanatory framework, Skinner bases his Ethics. The author establishes that the survival of the culture must be the value that guides someone who is in the position to design cultural practices. In this way, the good of the culture and some personal goods may be contradictory. This fact may lead to the conflict between phylogenetic susceptibilities, inherited from the process of species evolution, and the cultural needs. The ethicals solution, given by Skinner to this conflict, seems to be the choice for the good of the culture. According to Skinner, a well planned culture guarantees its own survival and, by the same time, guarantees individual welfare.

B. F. Skinner was engaged, throughout all his career, in finding ways to make life, culture and the world better through behavior analysis. The tools developed by the science of behavior may be used for technological ends. At the same time, a philosophy—Radical Behaviorism—discusses the theoretical basis for science and its possible relations with technology. Ethics emerges from these relations and Skinner had to face inevitable ethical questions. We will examine some aspects of Skinner's radical behaviorist approach on ethics and the relations established between science, technology, culture and ethics. The technology of teaching, proposed by Skinner in 1968, will be addressed as the best example of a behavioral technology which, as a cultural intervention, based on behavioral science, may contribute to achieve ethical goals: in others words, to build a better life and a better world - according to Skinner´s understanding of “better.”

Previous research has shown that arbitrary stimuli acquire the valence of facial expressions that convey different emotions when both become members of the same equivalence class. The present study investigated whether stimuli that shifted class membership and became equivalent to another facial expression would change in valence accordingly. Fifty-four college students formed equivalence classes A1B1C1D1, A2B2C2D2, and A3B3C3D3, where A1, A2, and A3 were facial expressions of happiness, neutrality, and anger, respectively. Semantic differential ratings showed that D1, D2, and D3 acquired the valences of the equivalent facial expressions. Training for class reorganization was then conducted, altering the CD relation, so that D2, D3, and D1 would become equivalent to expressions of happiness, neutrality, and anger, respectively. This training was conducted in a delayed matching-to-sample format for one group of participants and in a simultaneous matching-to-sample format for another group. When asked to rate the D stimuli again, participants who showed class reorganization showed valence changes according to the facial expression to which these stimuli became equivalent after training of the altered CD relation. Valence changed more for participants trained for class reorganization with delayed matching. Participants who did not pass the test for class reorganization did not show changes in the valence of the D stimuli. These results indicate that training parameters affect the extent to which stimuli change in meaning when they shift membership in equivalence classes.

This study investigated correspondence in children’s self-reports about the correctness of previous reading responses. Participants were typically developing children ages 9–14, with a poor school performance. Experiment 1 was conducted in a school setting, and Experiment 2 replicated it in a lab setting. Each trial presented a target word on a computer screen. The child read the word orally and, after the computer dictated the target word, selected a green or a red window to report whether the response had been correct or incorrect, respectively. In an initial baseline, children often selected the green window, regardless of whether they read correctly or not. A correspondence training then provided points for self-reports that corresponded to the reading response, whereas non-corresponding reports did not produce points. Correspondence quickly increased and was maintained in subsequent baseline sessions. Correspondence training was effective to establish accurate reports of errors in these children.

This study investigated children’s self-report accuracy as a function of task type and also verified generalization of do-say correspondence across tasks. Six children between 6 and 11 years of age participated in the study. “Doing” consisted of reading words, playing a computer game, solving a math problem, and labeling music-related stimuli. “Saying” consisted of reporting on the accuracy of performance following the automated computer feedback. Baseline assessed correspondence for the different tasks. Correspondence training was conducted for the task in which levels of accuracy were the lowest. Generalized do-say correspondence was then assessed in untrained tasks. For four children, correspondence was lowest for the academic tasks. Four of six children exhibited generalized correspondence after the first training, and the remaining two children did so following a second training with a different task. Distinct tasks seemed to control different patterns of self-report accuracy. Results on generalization indicated do-say correspondence as a generalized operant behavior.