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International audience; Context and purpose of the study: Like in other wine producing regions around the world, Bordeaux vineyards already experience the effects of climate change. Recent trends as well as model outputs for the future strongly support an increase of average and extreme temperatures. For the maturation period, this increase will by far exceed mean atmospheric temperature increase, as the ripening period will occur earlier in hotter climatic conditions. Therefore, a detrimental secondary metabolism response is expected in grape berries, and of particular concern are the impacts on phenolics and aromas and aroma precursors. The effects of high temperatures on secondary metabolism control have been partly characterized for phenolics, however mostly in artificial growing conditions, while little is known with respect to aromas. A better understanding of how high temperatures influence grape berry secondary metabolites could help vineyard growers to adapt to climate change and maintain wine quality. Material and methods: A two-year field study was carried out in 2015 and 2016 in a vineyard in Bordeaux, France. Two treatments, heated (H) and control (C), were applied to two varieties, Cabernet-Sauvignon and Sauvignon blanc, from fruit-set to maturity. Field heating was achieved by a very local greenhouse effect applied to the bottom of the rows, by enclosing most of the underlying soil surface by polycarbonate shields. As the training system was vertically trellised, the heated volume surrounded most of the bunches but did not disturb most of the leaves in the canopy. This simple and robust setup allowed an increase of berry temperature by about +1.5 degrees C in mean value, up to +5 degrees C at times during clear sky days. This moderate increase of temperature was indicative of the predicted future climatic conditions for the mid-21st century. Berry samples were collected at 4 time points from bunch closure to maturity for each cultivar and treatment. Primary and secondary metabolites were measured in whole berries or skins. Results and conclusions: With this moderate temperature increase, primary metabolite content in berries did not change significantly. In H samples, anthocyanins were reduced and tannins increased before veraison, and both decreased thereafter. H samples also exhibited lower concentrations of some amino acids, especially alanine, serine and phenylalanine. IBMP (2-methoxy-3-isobutylpyrazine) concentrations were also reduced in H samples of Cabernet-Sauvignon, in both seasons, especially at bunch closure stage, but the differences diminished at full maturity. For thiol 3-sulfanyl hexanol precursors, H samples again exhibited much lower concentrations for both varieties, with weak differences at early stages that increased at later stages (up to -70% decline at maturity in 2015 for Sauvignon blanc). These results demonstrate the potential negative impact of elevated temperature on polyphenols and aroma quality of grape berries. Significance and impact of the study: For viticulture to adapt to new climatic conditions, the negative impacts of high temperature on secondary metabolites and aromas, and therefore on wine quality, need to be contemplated. Thus, already established or new vineyard plantings must prepare and consider practices able to mitigate these impacts, for instance practices that increase bunch shading.

We ask the question of whether birefringent bands observed during stress plateaus when shearing certain surfactant solutions correspond to shear banding, i.e., a region of high shear rate coexisting with a region of low shear rate. Our experimental observations on one surfactant system agree with the simple idea of a shear-induced transition between a high and a low viscosity 'phase'. The detailed analysis of the velocity profiles allows us to reach the conclusion that the viscosities of the coexisting phases are those of the homogeneous fluids that exist before and after the stress plateau. The proportion of the shear-induced phase grows in the same fashion as that of the birefringent band, and the fraction of the gap occupied by the shear-induced fluid is found to follow a simple lever rule.