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Here, we present a thorough taphonomic analysis of the 1.84 million-year-old site of Phillip Tobias Korongo (PTK), Bed I, Olduvai Gorge. PTK is one of the new archaeological sites documented on the FLK Zinj paleolandscape, in which FLK 22 level was deposited and covered by Tuff IC. Therefore, PTK is pene- contemporary with these sites: FLK Zinj, DS, AMK and AGS. The occurrence of these sites within a thin clay unit of ~20 cm, occupying not only the same vertically discrete stratigraphic unit, but also the same paleosurface, with an exceptional preservation of the archaeological record in its primary depositional locus, constitutes a unique opportunity to explore early hominin behavioral diversity at the most limited geochronological scale possible. The Olduvai Bed I sites have been the core of behavioral modelling for the past half a century, and the newly discovered sites, excavated with 21st century technology, will increase significantly our understanding of early human adaptive patterns. Here, we present PTK as another assemblage where faunal resources were acquired by hominins prior to any carnivore, and where stone-tool assisted bulk defleshing was carried out. The abundance of juvenile individuals extends our understanding, as in Kanjera (Kenya), about the hunting skills of early Homo sensu lato. The increasing number of sites, where bulk defleshing of small and medium-sized carcasses took place is underscoring the importance of meat in the diets of some of the early hominins, and their patterned use of the space for food processing and consumption. The patterning emerging has a profound importance for the evolution of some of the features that have traditionally been used to identify the behavior of the genus Homo., This work was supported by the Swedish Research Council (Vetenskapsrådet) (AR-HS 2018-01045-3). We also thank the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation for funding this research (PID 2020-115452 GB-C21), and the Ministry of Culture for their funding through the program of Archaeology Abroad. Our thanks also to the Palarq Foundation and E2in2 for financial support.

Humans are unique in their diet, physiology and socio‑reproductive behavior compared to other primates. They are also unique in the ubiquitous adaptation to all biomes and habitats. From an evolutionary perspective, these trends seem to have started about two million years ago, coinciding with the emergence of encephalization, the reduction of the dental apparatus, the adoption of a fully terrestrial lifestyle, resulting in the emergence of the modern anatomical bauplan, the focalization of certain activities in the landscape, the use of stone tools, and the exit from Africa. It is in this period that clear taphonomic evidence of a switch in diet with respect to Pliocene hominins occurred, with the adoption of carnivory. Until now, the degree of carnivorism in early humans remained controversial. A persistent hypothesis is that hominins acquired meat irregularly (potentially as fallback food) and opportunistically through klepto‑foraging. Here, we test this hypothesis and show, in contrast, that the butchery practices of early Pleistocene hominins (unveiled through systematic study of the patterning and intensity of cut marks on their prey) could not have resulted from having frequent secondary access to carcasses. We provide evidence of hominin primary access to animal resources and emphasize the role that meat played in their diets, their ecology and their anatomical evolution, ultimately resulting in the ecologically unrestricted terrestrial adaptation of our species. This has major implications to the evolution of human physiology and potentially for the evolution of the human brain., We thank the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities for funding this research (HAR2017-82463-C4-1-P) and for fellowships to JA,GCA and MVR, and the Ministry of Culture for their funding through the program of Archaeology Abroad. We also thank the Swedish Research Council (Vetenskapsrådet) (AR-HS 2018-01045-3), and the Santander Bank (AR-HS 2018-01045-3) for their funding support. Our thanks also to the Palarq Foundation and E2in2 for financial support.

The Lower Pleistocene site of Bell's Korongo (BK) in Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania) has been a key site for the study of the origin of human behaviour. The lower archaeological levels of BK are characterized by anthropogenic activity related to the exploitation of megafauna (elephant, hippopotamus, Sivatherium) and smaller game (zebra, wildebeest and antelopes). These remains display a high frequency of cut marks. The exceptional state of preservation of the BK fossil assemblage has allowed a wide range of different analyses that, among other things, detected the use of quartzite in butchering activities through the study of cut marks. Following up previous analyses, this paper presents the study of a series of cut marks from the BK faunal assemblage using a 3D geometric morphometric methodological approach in order to determine the mineralogical properties of the quartzite used at the site. BK cut marks are compared with experimentally produced cut marks using 9 mineralogically different quartzite types from Olduvai Gorge. This comparative analysis provides valuable hints about the exact nature of the raw materials used in butchering activities. The results presented here identify a preferential use of quartzite with a finer granular composition, suggesting that hominin populations were already selecting the best raw materials for their use in specific activities 1.3 Mya.

Defining the time that any given archaeofaunal assemblage took to be accumulated is challenging. Understanding the time variable is crucial to interpret how early sites were formed and what these sites represent in terms of hominin behavior. Two complementary dental analysis techniques (microwear and mesowear) have been used to understand dietary niches of ungulates. Microwear has also specifically been used to detect the character of occupations at archaeological sites. Here, we apply these techniques to a selection of Olduvai sites. Microwear and mesowear analyses on bovid teeth from a set of anthropogenic sites (FLK Zinj, DS, BK) and a carnivore palimpsest (FLK North) yielded different results. Microwear data from the three anthropogenic sites are similar, reflecting short, seasonal occupations, in contrast with the carnivore assemblage, which suggests a more prolonged period of deposition. The similar microwear signal in the two pene-contemporaneous sites of FLK Zinj and DS is encouraging, but caution in its interpretation is applied because of limited tooth enamel preservation and the resulting small sample size. The results shown here must be considered as a baseline for future and more extensive studies. Both microwear and mesowear analyses show that the most common bovid taxa in the Bed I sites exhibit mixed feeding signals. This reinforces the caution about interpretations of dietary niches of extinct ungulates based on their modern counterparts and emphasizes that for some taxa, the adoption of a browsing or grazing diet is context (time and locus) specific.

Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania) is one of the key areas for the study of human origins, given the sheer abundance of archaeological and paleontological sites discovered. Several of these archaeological sites have yielded numerous hominin fossils and traces of their activities, thus offering invaluable insights into the nature and origins of human behavior. Nevertheless, certain taphonomic discussions that have been of great importance for the study of the South African cave sites have remained unnoticed in East Africa. One of these issues revolves around the interpretation of Paranthropus as a common prey of predators. In this paper, we analyze the postcranial remains of OH80, a partial skeleton of a Paranthropus boisei discovered at the BK site (Bell Korongo, Bed II of Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania) in 2010. Some of the specimens of this skeleton have been reported to show surface modifications tentatively associated to the action of carnivores. Here, several pits observed on OH80-12, the Paranthropus boisei femur, were digitally reconstructed and analyzed through geometric morphometrics to determine the nature of the marks. The OH80-12 marks are compared with a modern sample of percussion marks and several carnivore tooth pits, since the action of both agents has previously been identified at the site and can sometimes result in equifinality problems. Alongside already published geometric morphometric tests, here we present a very newly developed approach based on the combination of geometric morphometric data and the training of machine learning algorithms. Both methodologies highlight that OH80 was consumed by carnivores, being a felid the most likely modifying agent.

Taphonomic analyses at Palaeolithic sites contribute to explain the processes through which bone assemblages formed and accumulated, with a particular emphasis on the role played by humans. At most sites, the focus is generally on what agents were responsible for the formation of the assemblage. In this paper, in addition to discussing the zooarchaeological evidence and the taphonomy of La Lluera Cave (Asturias), we put forward a new analytical approach that aims to identify the most frequently used raw materials for the butchery of the animal carcasses found at the site. We analysed the cut-marks by means of three-dimensional reconstruction techniques, showing how they were made with both flint and quartzite. This interpretation is in line with the lithic assemblage found at the site, with both materials amply represented. Our results indicate that butchery practices were not significantly conditioned by, nor did they condition, raw material selection, in contrast with the patterns observed at other Palaeolithic sites.

Carnivore bone modification has been one of the targets of taphonomic research during the last decades. Discerning carnivore involvement in the archaeo-paleontological record during the Plio-Pleistocene is especially important due to the capability of several carnivores of creating bone assemblages, to the interaction with other species in the modification of bones across the landscape and to the potential interspecific competition (e.g., with other carnivores or hominins). Several variables have been explored to discern the carnivore taxa involved in bone modification, but most of them led to equifinality. Recently, the application of computer vision and geometric morphometric techniques for the reconstruction of tooth mark morphology has provided satisfactory results in terms of differentiating among carnivore taxa with similar body size. Here we apply this new technique to the study of pits from the Olduvai Carnivore site (OCS), which has been interpreted as the first bone assemblage generated by lions and subsequently ravaged by hyenas. Results support the lions' involvement and post-ravaging action of hyenas in the OCS assemblage. Lastly, we also explore the potential of applying these new techniques to other bone assemblages in which different carnivore taxa were involved in their modification.

Recent techniques applied to taphonomy have made advances in our understanding of bone surface modifications. For many years, differences in bone density according to element and variations in animal size have been considered conditioning factors for many taphonomic processes. While several studies highlight how animal size and density affect fracture patterns and bone preservation rates, variations in cut mark morphology are yet to be confronted against these variables. Here, we assess the effect of these variables and their potential effect on cut mark morphology by comparing a considerable amount of cut marks on different anatomical elements of both suids and bovids. Experimentally produced cut mark samples were then digitally reconstructed using a David Laser scanner that allowed the statistical analysis of each cut mark's shape and form. Geometric morphometric analysis using 2D and 3D landmark models were unable to find substantial differences in cut mark morphologies caused by either element type of carcass size.

Coimbre cave (Penamellera Alta, Asturias) is an Upper Palaeolithic site in Northern Spain, spanning an occupation sequence from the Gravettian to the Magdalenian periods. The upper layers -layer I and II-, corresponding to the Upper Magdalenian, register the highest intensity of human activity. In this paper, we analyse raw material functionality at the site through the study of cut-marks found on bone remains. At Coimbre, we have documented mainly quartzite, followed by flint; other raw materials are found in very low frequencies. There are several types of local quartzite that appear mainly as flaking debitage and stone tools such as burins and scrappers. On the other hand, flint is mainly knapped to elaborate blades and bladelets, as well as specialised implements, such as different types of side scrappers. Retouched flakes on flint are relatively more abundant than those made on quartzite. In this paper we employ the use of photogrammetry, geometric morphometrics and statistics to analyse the cut-marks from the Upper Magdalenian assemblage of Coimbre cave. Our aim is to determine the lithic raw material preferentially used for carcass processing at the site.

Developments in methodological approaches to high-resolution morphometrical study of cut-mark morphology further our understanding of butchering activities. Identification of micro-morphological variability between different taphonomical alterations on ancient bone allows detection and comparison of bone-surface modifications and associated taphonomical agents and activities. By taking a geometrical-morphometrical approach, data from 3-D laser-scanning and micro-photogrammetrical models of experimental cut-marks enable statistical analysis to classify and distinguish between cut-marks by bifaces from those by flakes, and, in each case, between marks made by flint from those made by quartzite tools. Analysis of two tool types, each made from two raw materials as independent variables, is a methodological advance in morphometrical studies of experimental cut-marks, which hitherto have tended to focus on the respective parts played by tool types or types of raw material in morphometrical characterization of experimental and archaeological cut-marks.

Leopards have been the focus of taphonomic research due to their capacity to create bone accumulations, prey on some hominin groups or potentially provide scavenging opportunities to early hominins...

[EN] The sites at Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania) constitute a unique venue for the study of the first members of the genus Homo. The large amount of fossils recovered and the good state of preservation of these sites have boosted archaeological research in the Gorge throughout the years. The Olduvai Paleoanthropology and Paleoecology Project (TOPPP) research team, present at the Gorge since 2006, launched the construction of the Aguirre-Mturi Scientific Station within the limits of the Ngorongoro National Park with the aim of improving the working conditions and provide a safe working space. The safeguard of the archaeological materials was also one of the cornerstones during the design process and building of the station. The laboratory allows almost immediate cleaning, analysis and restoration of the materials recovered during field work. Meanwhile, in Spain, the Institute of Evolution in Africa (IDEA), current headquarters of the TOPPP team, was founded with the aim of promoting the study of African paleoanthropology and the origins of humankind in Africa. Along with the research work, TOPPP strives to bring the scientific knowledge to the general public in several ways, including the management of temporary and permanent exhibitions in Spain and Tanzania., [ES] Los yacimientos de la Garganta de Olduvai (Tanzania) constituyen un enclave único para el estudio de los primeros representantes del género Homo. La buena preservación de estos yacimientos y la cantidad de fósiles hallados en ellos posibilita que se sigan desarrollando excavaciones arqueológicas en este lugar. El equipo de investigación The Olduvai Paleoanthropology and Paleoecology Project (TOPPP), que trabaja en estos yacimientos desde 2006, promovió la construcción de la Estación Científica Aguirre-Mturi con el propósito de mejorar las condiciones laborales del personal investigador y de hacer del campamento un lugar seguro de trabajo. Durante el proceso de creación y construcción se tuvo en cuenta la salvaguarda de los materiales arqueológicos, y gracias a la existencia de un laboratorio en el campamento, es posible realizar tareas como la limpieza, el análisis y la restauración del material recuperado. En España, la creación del Instituto de Evolución en África (IDEA), sede actual del equipo TOPPP, nace con el objetivo de promover el estudio de la paleoantropología africana y el origen del ser humano en África. Junto a los trabajos de investigación, TOPPP realiza una intensa actividad divulgativa donde destaca la creación de exposiciones temporales y permanentes en España y Tanzania., A la Comisión para la Ciencia y la Tecnología (COSTECH), a la Autoridad del Área de Conservación del Ngorongoro (NCAA) y al Departamento de Antigüedades y al Ministerio de Turismo y Recursos Naturales en Tanzania por el permiso para investigar en la Garganta de Olduvai. Al Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades por el proyecto concedido (HAR2017-82463-C4-1-P) y por la financiación para los contratos predoctorales de Formación de Profesorado Universitario (FPU) de MVR y JA; al Ministerio de Cultura a través del Instituto de Patrimonio Cultural de España por las ayudadas concedidas para Proyectos Arqueológicos en el Exterior, y a la Fundación Palarq por las ayudas para apoyar las Misiones de Arqueología y Paleontología Españolas en el en el extranjero.

In the present study, we report brown hyena tooth marks on australopiths from Sterkfontein's Plio-Pleistocene-age Member 4 (South Africa). Classic taphonomic analyses and the implementation of new techniques, including Geometric Morphometrics and Machine Learning, are combined to identify the modifying agent and provide the first direct evidence of hyenid scavenging on australopiths. This hypothesis adds a new perspective to the relationships between carnivores and hominins in the Cradle by expanding on previous hypotheses proposing that leopards were the primary predator and bone accumulator of early hominin remains at South African palaeocaves.

Hominins and carnivores have shared similar habitats in Africa, evolving as direct competitors for the same prey and spaces. The overlap of their ecological niches has raised an important debate on the role that carnivores played in archaeological site formation. Different analytical techniques differentiate the action of carnivores and humans and identify the type of carnivore involved of which tooth mark analyses are prominent. However, available taphonomic studies present some limitations given the great overlap among tooth mark sizes from different carnivores, enabling only the distinction of size groups, not specific carnivores. In this work, we use a new technique combining three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction and geometric morphometrics (GMM) of tooth pits on equid and bovid bone created by different carnivores (including crocodiles, hyenas, jaguars, lions and wolves) in controlled settings. The 3D methodology we present isolates and differentiates tooth marks generated by different carnivores. We also test the applicability of the technique to ascribe tooth pits recorded on some hominin specimens from FLK Zinj and FLKNN 3 (Bed I, Olduvai Gorge). The tooth marks on the Olduvai OH8 and OH35 hominin fossils, previously assigned to crocodiles show that while OH8 tooth pit morphology falls in the range created by crocodiles, the pits on OH35 can not be interpreted as crocodile-inflicted marks.

Recent application of photogrammetric and geometric morphometric approaches to the study of cut marks on bones has yielded positive results in discriminating different types of tools and even some raw materials. Here, we apply this analytical technique to the study of carnivore tooth scores. The goal is twofold: on the one hand, we intend to differentiate carnivore types and on the other one, we show the application of this approach to a sample of tooth scores from long bones documented at the modern assemblage of the Olduvai Carnivore Site (OCS). Previous taphonomic work at OCS suggested that this bone assemblage constituted a good evidence of a carcass accumulation behavior by lions, followed by hyena ravaging. The application of these 3D techniques to the selected sample of tooth marks shows that lions, as well as spotted hyenas, did indeed impart marks on the OCS assemblage. This reinforces the dual nature of the assemblage and the implication of lions in its formation.

The arrival of new methodological approaches to study microscopic qualities in cut mark morphology has been a major improvement in our understanding of butchering activities. Micro-morphological differences can be detected in multiple different taphonomic alterations on bone cortical surfaces that can later be used to compare different trace mark types. Through this, we can generate studies that are able to diagnose the specific taphonomic agents and activities that produce said traces that can be found on osteological surfaces. This paper presents experimental data that have been studied using micro-photogrammetry and geometric morphometrics, successfully distinguishing morphological differences in cut marks produced by different lithic tool types as well as different raw materials. The statistical results and methodologies presented here can later be applied to archaeological sites; aiding in our understanding of raw material exploitation, tool production as well as the different butchering activities that are present in faunal assemblages.

Before sedimentation, bones are exposed to an important amount of biostratinomic taphonomic processes. One of them is related to the action of carnivores, which is reflected in conspicuous tooth marks, such as pits, scores, punctures or furrowing. Different carnivores damage bone assemblages differently. Thus, several researches have tried to identify carnivore agency based on different parameters such as skeletal profiles, tooth mark frequencies and dimensions, breakage patterns, or more recently, taphotypes. Here we propose a new methodology based on the analysis of tooth scores to determine the carnivore type involved in bone modification. For this purpose, we have built 3D models of several tooth scores produced by wolves, lions, jaguars, foxes and hyenas using photogrammetric techniques. These models were later analyzed by means of Geometric Morphometrics and multivariate statistics. We show that although there is a high degree of overlap in tooth mark morphology, the combined action of tooth score dimensions and morphology enables the identification of some of the tooth scores made by lions from those of the other carnivores with a higher degree of confidence than any other inter-carnivore comparison.

Summary In the last few years, the study of cut marks on bone surfaces has become fundamental for the interpretation of prehistoric butchery practices. Due to the difficulties in the correct identification of cut marks, many criteria for their description and classification have been suggested. Different techniques, such as three-dimensional digital microscope (3D DM), laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM) and micro-photogrammetry (M-PG) have been recently applied to the study of cut marks. Although the 3D DM and LSCM microscopic techniques are the most commonly used for the 3D identification of cut marks, M-PG has also proved to be very efficient and a low-cost method. M-PG is a noninvasive technique that allows the study of the cortical surface without any previous preparation of the samples, and that generates high-resolution models. Despite the current application of microscopic and micro-photogrammetric techniques to taphonomy, their reliability has never been tested. In this paper, we compare 3D DM, LSCM and M-PG in order to assess their resolution and results. In this study, we analyse 26 experimental cut marks generated with a metal knife. The quantitative and qualitative information registered is analysed by means of standard multivariate statistics and geometric morphometrics to assess the similarities and differences obtained with the different methodologies.

Spatial statistical models are powerful tools for creating simulation and prediction models. Here, we apply such models to the newly discovered 1.84 Ma site of DS (Bed I, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania). Ongoing excavation has already exposed 370 m2 of the same discrete archaeological level. This is the biggest window into an Early Pleistocene anthropogenic site. With such a large area opened, modelling based on spatial trends (using coordinates) and on covariates (topography) has enabled the creation of predictions about where the densest concentrations of unexcavated materials may lie. Following this modelling, excavation has confirmed the predictions; the densest clusters of stone tools and fossils bones are palaeotopographically and palaeoecologically influenced. Spatial statistical analysis is, therefore, a powerful analytical tool to model and understand in-site and off-site hominin behaviour as an interaction between hominins and environments.

This paper presents a detailed taphonomic study of the faunal assemblage from FLK West (Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania), a site with an Acheulean component that dates to 1.7 Ma. The faunal sample analysed here is distributed in different archaeological levels and is associated with a significant lithic accumulation including several large format tools and handaxes. The fauna indicates the proliferation of open environments similar to those found in other Bed II and late Bed I sites. Evidence of anthropogenic activity (e.g. defleshing activities and marrow consumption) has been identified in the form of cut and percussion marks. A photogrammetric and morphometric analysis suggests that these marks were produced with quartzite flakes and not with handaxes. Evidence of interaction with carnivores was also noted; tooth marks were observed on some bones. Such interaction indicates the existence of competition between humans and carnivores for the same ecological niche, and might lead us to reflect on the survival strategies of Lower Pleistocene hominins.

The use of innovative techniques such as micro-photogrammetry and geometric morphometrics may have a major impact on the differentiation of cut marks made with different raw materials and, thus, link butchering processes with stone tool reduction sequences. This work focuses on a sample of cut-marked bones from the Bell's Korongo (BK) site (Upper Bed II, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania), which is an emblematic early Pleistocene site where a large faunal assemblage, including a diverse megafauna, occurs in association with quartzite and basalt industries. We present a detailed study of a sample of 58 cut marks identified on a set of recently excavated BK fossils, using a micro-photogrammetric and geometric morphometric approach, with the aim of identifying the raw materials used in the butchery of carcasses. In order to carry out this study, we previously carried out an experimental analysis to characterize cut marks and their morphology according to the types of raw material found at BK, namely quartzite and basalt. The results from the experimental study show that there is a good fit between raw material type and cut mark morphology, enabling us to confidently apply this method to the analysis of the cut marks of the BK fossil assemblage. The present study shows that most of the BK cut marks were created by the use of quartzite tools. The efficiency of this type of raw material is emphasized, which explains its curation over the landscape by hominins.

The concept of equifinality has become one of the greatest difficulties in the field of taphonomy However, new advances in technology have diminished the margins of error in the interpretation of archaeological sites. The use of multivariate statistics and the most recent advances in microscopic analysis of Bone Surface Modifications (BSMs) have enable a less subjective interpretation of site formation processes. Nevertheless, this broader range of methodological approaches also presents some problems. The capacity of laser scanners in processing inconspicuous and superficial cortical alterations, such as trampling marks, has proven to be problematic. This study presents a new advance towards resolving this problem through the use of the HIROX KH-8700 Digital Microscope, whereby detailed digital three-dimensional (3D) reconstructions are able to pick up such minute BSMs. Through the statistical comparison of the David Laser scanner and the HIROX KH-8700 Digital Microscope, this paper contributes to our understanding of said equipment, followed by a significant advance in the characterisation of superficial BSMs. The combination of advanced microscopy and the application of geometric morphometrics highlights a morphological differentiation between two different types of trampling marks, hereby named scratch and graze trampling marks., This work was developed within the general framework of the Spanish MINECO-FEDER project CGL2015-65387-C3-1-P, the Catalan AGAUR project 2017-SGR-1040, and the URV project 2017-PFR-URV-B2-91.

Since the 1980s an intense scientific debate has revolved around the hunting capacities of early hominin populations and the behavioral patterns of carnivores sharing the same ecosystem, and thus competing for the same resources. This debate, commonly known as the hunter-scavenger debate, fostered the emergence of a new research line into the Bone Surface Modifications (BSMs) produced by both taphonomic agents. Throughout the following 20 years, multiple studies concerning the action of carnivores have been developed, with a particular focus on the oldest archaeological sites in East Africa. Recent technological advances applied to taphonomy have provided new insight into carnivore BSMs. A newly developed part of this work relies on Geometric Morphometrics (GMM) studies aimed at discerning carnivore agency through the morphologic characterization of tooth scores and pits. GMM studies have produced promising results, however methodological limitations are still present. This paper presents the first combined application of Machine Learning (ML) algorithms and GMM to the analysis of carnivore tooth marks, generating classification rates of 100% between carnivore species in some cases., This work was developed within the general framework of the Spanish MINECO-FEDER project CGL2015-65387-C3-1-P, the Catalan AGAUR project 2017-SGR-1040, and the URV project 2017-PFR-URV-B2-91.

Categorical variables identifying microscopic features of cut marks produce high accuracy in discrimination of bone surface modifications, but are vulnerable to variable degrees of inter-analyst subjectivity. Metric analyses of cut mark width and depth are presented by Merritt et al. (2018) as a more objective method of identifying cut marks. However, this uni(bi)variate method has shown very high rates of mark classification error when structurally similar marks are compared. Furthermore, within-sample comparison carried out via subsampling shows that different datasets of metric values, obtained with the same type of tool and raw material, are subject to such a high degree of variability that significant differences of homogeneous subsamples are repeatedly obtained, thus preventing any useful analogs to be made. Additionally, this much higher stochastic variability depends on limited knowledge of the contextual processes that intervene in cut mark metric properties, as well as on a mismatch between theoretical premises on the immanent-configurational process-trace dynamics and their confusion during experimental praxis. The selection of specific contextual variables and disregard of others, in addition to the combination of different tool types and raw materials, distorts the resulting cut mark properties. This indicates that even when attempting to use exclusively metric numeric variables, subjectivity is a conditioning factor in analyzing and interpreting cut marks.

Excavations at Bell Korongo (BK) have yielded important evidence to infer different behaviours of early hominins in several archaeological levels since 1935. The present study shows the results for a newly geological and archaeological of BK (Level U3.1). This paper describes the geology of this newly discovered level, along with a taphonomical analysis of the archaeological remains to better understand the assemblage formation processes. This new level was deposited at the base of LA Unit 3, in decantation facies over a point-bar. Although these facies, found throughout the site furnish ideal conditions for preservation, this is the first time in BK level U3.1 that any archaeological or paleontological remains have been found embedded within them. The taphonomic study suggests that the assemblage is the result of a short time span involving processes accumulating remains from different thanatocoenoses created over a time span of less than one year, consistent with a sedimentation process triggered by flooding of the channel during the annual heavy rains in the wet season. Furthermore, a large percentage of bones, including megafaunal remains, appear cutmarked, percussion marks and anthropgenic green fractures. Level U3.1 is the youngest level at BK, and adds to the evidence of the megafaunal exploitation behaviour of early Pleistocene hominins, which has already been extensively reported in BK Levels 4 and 5 and other African Lower Pleistocene sites., We thank COSTECH and the Antiquities Unit (Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism) of Tanzania for permission to conduct researchat Olduvai. DMMP acknowledges an FPI postgraduate fellowship associated to Project CGL2015-68333-P. MSD acknowledges a postdoctoral fellowship under the program “Marie Sklodowska-Curie Individual Fellowships” (European Commission). We would like to thank the Spanish Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports, the general directionof Fine Arts and Cultural Heritage and the Spanish Institute of Cultural Heritage, with fellowships to archaeological projects overseas to project PR47/1720999: “La explotación de megafaunas en el Paleolítico inferior africano. Nuevas perspectivas desde BK (Bell Korongo, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania)”. We would like to thank the PALARQ Foundation with fellowships to archaeological projects overseas to project: AY200818/01, “Estrategia de subsistencia y explotación de megafaunas durante el final de Pleistoceno inferior africano y su implicación en la dispersión de Homo erectus (Bell Korongo, Olduvai)- Tanzania ”Thesupport of the DST-NRF Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences (CoE-Pal) towards this research is hereby acknowledged.

Humans are the only primates that maintain regular inter-group relationships and meta-group social networks that enable the inter-group flow of individuals. This is the basis of the band/tribe concept in the anthropology of modern foragers. The present work is a theoretical approach to the development of analytical tools to understand group size and the temporal scale of site occupation in the archaeological record. We selected FLK Zinj as one of the oldest examples of a taphonomically-supported anthropogenic site in which both variables (group size and time) could be modelled using a combination of modern forager regression estimates from their camp sizes and estimates derived from the combined use of modern African foragers' meat consumption rates per day per capita during the dry season and minimum estimates of flesh yields provided by the carcass parts preserved at FLK Zinj. This approach provides the basis for a testable hypothesis which should be further tested in other Oldowan sites. An estimate of 18–28 individuals occupying FLK Zinj was made, which is similar to the estimated 16 individuals of one of the 1.5 Ma Ileret Homo erectus footprint trails. It also shows a similar proportional distribution to Dunbar's equations (group size to neocortex ratio) as documented in modern foragers, which suggest that most of the social network of H. erectus was in the meta-group level as is the case of modern foragers. Irrespective of the range of variation discussed for both variables (group size and length of time represented), it is argued that neither small estimates of time nor small group sizes can account for the formation of FLK Zinj.

The analysis of bone surface modifications (BSMs) is a prominent part of paleoanthropological studies, namely taphonomic research. Behavioral interpretations of the fossil record hinge strongly upon correct assessment of BSMs. With the significant impact of microscopic analysis to the study of BSMs, multiple authors have discussed the reliability of these technological improvements for gaining resolution in BSM discrimination. While a certain optimism is present, some important questions are ignored and others overemphasized without appropriate empirical support. This specifically affects the study of cut marks. A diversity of geometric morphometric approaches applied to the study of cut marks have resulted in the coexistence (and competition) of different 2D and 3D methods. The present work builds upon the foundation of experiments presented by Maté-González et al. (2015), Courtenay et al. (2017) and Otárola-Castillo et al. (2018) to contrast for the first time 2D and 3D methods in their resolution of cut mark interpretation and classification. The results presented here show that both approaches are equally valid and that the use of sophisticated 3D methods do not contribute to an improvement in accuracy.

The Iberian Peninsula is key for the study of the transition from the Middle to the Upper Palaeolithic in Europe, as well as for the replacement of Neanderthals by anatomically modern humans (AMH). On this subject, the most widespread misconception assumed that both human species coexisted during a certain period of time, after which Homo sapiens imposed on Neanderthals who finally got extinct. However, recent proposals based on improved dating methods, discuss this possibility, arguing that the arrival of AMH was marked by the complete absence of Homo neanderthalensis in this territory. In that way, new theories deny the possibility of coexistence and the disappearance of Neanderthals by cultural displacement. Covalejos Cave (Velo, Pielagos, Cantabria), one of the few settlements in the northern Peninsula with Final Mousterian and Early Aurignacian levels, supports this hypothesis. Nevertheless, in this paper, we try to avoid a direct discussion about this question in order to centre our analysis on identifying possible different subsistence strategies between H. neanderthalensis and anatomically modern humans in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. Our zooarchaeological and taphonomic studies reflect that Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans exploited the same faunal species, pointing out that there does not seem to be significant differences in their behaviour in Covalejos Cave.

In the last few years, the study of cut marks on bone surfaces has become fundamental for the interpretation of prehistoric butchery practices. Due to the difficulties in the correct identification of cut marks, many criteria for their description and classification have been suggested. Different techniques, such as three-dimensional digital microscope (3D DM), laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM) and micro-photogrammetry (M-PG) have been recently applied to the study of cut marks. Although the 3D DM and LSCM microscopic techniques are the most commonly used for the 3D identification of cut marks, M-PG has also proved to be very efficient and a low-cost method. M-PG is a noninvasive technique that allows the study of the cortical surface without any previous preparation of the samples, and that generates high-resolution models. Despite the current application of microscopic and micro-photogrammetric techniques to taphonomy, their reliability has never been tested. In this paper, we compare 3D DM, LSCM and M-PG in order to assess their resolution and results. In this study, we analyse 26 experimental cut marks generated with a metal knife. The quantitative and qualitative information registered is analysed by means of standard multivariate statistics and geometric morphometrics to assess the similarities and differences obtained with the different methodologies.

AMK (Amin Mturi Korongo) is a newly discovered site situated under Tuff IC (Bed I, 1.84 Ma). It contains several fossiliferous levels and the top one is situated on the same paleosurface as FLK-Zinj. For the first time this allows sampling the “Zinj” paleoenvironment well into the Secondary Gorge and expands the known area of this paleolandscape. Fossils found at this site show exceptional preservation. Several articulated units have been discovered, indicating minimal postdepositional disturbance and rapid sedimentation. This assemblage allows a general estimation of time span (the most elusive variable in archaeological analyses) for the formation of AMK. Phytolith analyses have discovered a dense palm forest at the site, expanding the forested area known on the slightly elevated platform that contains the FLK-Zinj – FLK-NN – PTK sites. Although a few artifacts have been discovered in the vicinity of AMK, the site was mostly naturally (i.e., non-anthropogenically) formed. This is of major relevance to determine that factors other than forested habitats must have influenced the formation of anthropogenic sites on the same platform as AMK in the Olduvai lacustrine basin.

A series of experimental cut marks have been analyzed by eleven taphonomists with the goal of assessing if they could identify similarly 14 selected microscopic variables which would identify those marks as cut marks. The main objective was to test if variable identification could be made scientifically; that is, different researchers using the same method and criteria making the same assessment of each variable. This experiment shows that even in researchers trained in the same laboratories and following the same protocols divergences in the perception of each variable are significant. This indicates that mark perception and interpretation is a highly subjective process. If this basic analytical stage is subjective, subjectivity permeates to a greater degree the higher inferential stages leading from mark identification to reconstruction of butchering behaviors based on mark frequencies, mark anatomical distribution, actor-effector-trace processes, and statistical interpretations of the stochastic mark-imparting butchering processes. Here, we emphasize that the use of bone surface modifications for behavioral interpretations remains a non-scientific endeavor because of lack of independent replicability of criteria and processes, divergences in how variables are selected and used and epistemologically flawed analogs. This constitutes a major call to taphonomy to engage in more scientific (i.e., objective) approaches to the study of bone surface modifications for taphonomic inference elaboration.

Traditional views of Neanderthal hunting strategies envisage them preying on herd species such as bison and deer, rather than the sophisticated tracking of solitary animals. Analysis of faunal remains from El Esquilleu Cave in northern Spain, however, demonstrates that during certain periods of the Middle Palaeolithic occupation, Neanderthals focused on the hunting of ibex and chamois, small solitary species that inhabited the mountainous terrain around the site. These results indicate that Neanderthal hunting practices may have had more similarity to those of their Upper Palaeolithic relatives than is usually assumed.

A study of bone orientation patterns at a wildebeest bonebed deposited in the floodplain of Lake Masek (Tanzania) shows that portions of the assemblage exhibit anisotropy probably caused by the combined action of lake transgression and regression, and the watersheet formed during the rainy season, which is also responsible for a large part of the microtopographical features of the surface where the bonebed was formed. Some taphonomic indicators (absence of polished or abraded bone, similar representation of Voorhies' anatomical groups I and III) show that the anisotropic trend was formed under very low-energy conditions. Anisotropy can be locally produced in autochthonous assemblages. Bone orientation patterns need to be combined with other taphonomic techniques to determine the depositional nature of any given assemblage.

In recent years, new techniques for the morphological study of cut marks have become essential for the interpretation of prehistoric butchering practices. Different criteria have been suggested for the description and classification of cut marks. The methods commonly used for the study of cut marks rely on high-cost microscopy techniques with low portability (i.e., inability to work in situ), such as the 3D digital microscope (3D DM) or laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM). Recently, new algorithmic developments in the field of computer vision and photogrammetry, have achieved very high precision and resolution, offering a portable and low-cost alternative to microscopic techniques. However, the photogrammetric techniques present some disadvantages, such as longer data collection and processing time, and the requirement of some photogrammetric expertise for the calibration of the cameras and the acquisition of precise image orientation. In this paper, we compare two low-cost techniques and their application to cut mark studies: the micro-photogrammetry (M-PG) technique presented, developed, and validated previously, and a methodology based on the use of a structured light scanner (SLS). A total of 47 experimental cut marks, produced using a stainless steel knife, were analyzed. The data registered through virtual reconstruction was analyzed by means of three-dimensional geometric morphometrics (GMM).