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Additional file 3. Non-anopheline mosquitoes and other Dipterans. Table S3. Number of non-anopheline mosquitoes, biting midges, and sand flies caught with Gazetrap, PHLC, and Screen, at urban and peri-urban settings. Table S4. Number of non-anopheline mosquitoes, biting midges, and sand flies caught during seasonal periods, at urban and peri-urban settings.

Additional file 4. Supplementary results for the number of individuals/species of Anopheles. Model Output – Best-fitted models. PERMANOVA / PERMDISP estimates and NMDS plots. Table S5. Anopheles species and individuals (N) captured at urban and peri-urban settings of Porto Velho, state of Rondônia, Brazilian Amazon. Table S6. Anopheles species and individuals (N) captured through Gazetrap, PHLC, and Barrier Screen in Porto Velho, state of Rondônia, Brazilian Amazon. Table S7. Anopheles species and individuals (N) captured in the Dry, Rainy, and Transitional seasons, at Porto Velho, state of Rondônia, Brazilian Amazon. Table S8. Summary of estimates from the best approximation models for anopheline abundance and richness. Table S9. PERMANOVA and PERMDISP analyses for Anopheles assemblage structure between seasons and sampling techniques. Fig. S2. Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) plots for graphical visualization of the PERMANOVA and PERMDISP analyses of Anopheles assemblage structure.

Additional file 2. Residual Diagnostics, Model Validation, and Temporal Autocorrelation Analyses - Anopheline Abundance Data.

Additional file 1. Site Selection Criteria. Table S1. Number of malaria cases in the urban and peri-urban localities from the city of Porto Velho, between 2015-2017. Figure S1. Location of 25 sites sampled for anopheline presence in Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil. Table S2. Details on 25 sites where anopheline presence was recorded, and selected sites in bold.

O mosaico de formações vegetais encontrado na região Amazônica é enorme, bem como a variação dentro de habitats. O presente estudo enfocou os padrões de distribuição de insetos galhadores em três tipos de vegetação: florestas de terra firme, vegetações cujo terreno não sofre alagamentos, florestas de várzea e florestas de igapó, ambas sazonalmente inundadas pelo aumento no nível das águas dos rios. De acordo com a hipótese do estresse nutricional e hídrico, plantas que crescem em solos pobres em nutrientes e com escassez ou excesso de água são mais susceptíveis ao ataque de insetos galhadores. Nas florestas alagáveis foram coletadas 50.238 galhas de insetos, sendo verificado 246 morfotipos de galhas no igapó e 302 morfotipos de galhas na várzea. Das 250 árvores amostradas no igapó, 229 apresentavam galhas de insetos. Nas florestas de várzea foi observado um número maior de árvores não atacadas, 66 indivíduos de um total de 312 árvores amostradas. A abundância destes insetos não apresentou diferenças significativas entre habitats ou entre tipos de floresta. Já as florestas de igapó um menor número de espécies arbóreas tendem a acumular uma maior riqueza de insetos galhadores. Assim, as árvores de florestas sazonalmente inundadas podem ser mais ou menos atacadas por insetos galhadores, dependendo da disponibilidade de nutrientes no sistema, corroborando a hipótese do estresse nutricional. Nas florestas de terra firme, o tamanho e o grau de isolamento de fragmentos florestais determinam as taxas de colonização e extinção, e assim a sobrevivência e manutenção das populações. Os fragmentos pequenos são dominados por processos de borda, apresentando um aumento na temperatura do ar e redução na umidade do ar e do solo, afetando a flora e fauna local. Ao todo, foram coletadas 91.006 galhas de insetos em 503 árvores de florestas contínuas e de fragmentos de terra firme. Os dois tipos de ambientes amostrados, fragmentos e floresta contínuas, não apresentaram diferenças significativas quanto a abundância, riqueza e composição de morfoespécies de insetos galhadores A configuração espacial do sistema estudado, a presença de matriz de vegetação secundária em torno dos fragmentos e a similaridade no número de espécies arbóreas amostradas em fragmentos e na floresta contínua podem explicar os resultados encontrados. Comparando-se as florestas de terra firme às florestas inundáveis, várzea e igapó, observou-se uma riqueza e abundância diferencial de galhadores em função da variação na diversidade de plantas em cada paisagem. A riqueza e abundância de galhadores foi maior nas florestas de terra firme, comparado às florestas de várzea e de igapó. No entanto, a razão entre riqueza de galhadores e riqueza de plantas amostradas (razão RIG/RPA) foi significativamente maior nas florestas de igapó e de terra firme, enquanto as florestas de várzea apresentaram os menores valores desta razão. Neste estudo, verificou-se valores inéditos de riqueza de insetos galhadores por ponto amostral. A razão RIG/RPA da várzea foi aproximadamente 2,5 maior que o maior valor desta razão encontrado na literatura. Baseado neste fato, podemos afirmar que a vegetação amazônica mais pobre em espécies de galhadores (várzea) constitui uma das paisagens que apresentam a maior diversidade destes insetos, entre todas as regiões biogeogeográficas já investigadas. Os resultados do presente estudo corroboram as hipóteses de Price et al. (1998) e de Ribeiro (2003), visto que o dossel superior representa um habitat estressado higrotermicamente e com altos níveis de esclerofilia, comparado ao ambiente de sub-bosque úmido e não-escleromórfico das florestas da Amazônia Central. habitats. This study focused distribution patterns of gall-forming insects, in three types of Amazonian vegetation: terra firme forests, vegetation which never suffer flooding, várzea forests and igapó forests, both seasonally flooded by water level fluctuation. In accordance with hypothesis of water and nutrient stress, plants that grow in poor soils and with shortage or excess of water are more sensitive to galling insect attack. It were sampled 50,238 insect galls in the two flooded forests, 246 gall morphospecies in the igapó and 302 morphospecies in the várzea forests. Of 250 igapó sampled trees, 229 presented insect galls. In the várzea forest, it was verified a higher number of non-attacked plants, 66 individuals of 312 trees. Gall-forming insect abundance did not present statistical differences between habitats or forest types. However, igapó forest showed a trend of lower number of tree species accumulates higher number of galling species. Then, trees of seasonally flooded forest can be more or less attacked by gall-inducing insects, depending on the nutrient availability in the system, corroborating the nutritional stress hypothesis. In the terra firme forest, size and isolation degree of forest fragments determine colonization and extinction rates, and then populations survival and maintenance. Small fragments are dominated by edge processes, presenting an increase in air temperature and soil/air moisture decrease, affecting local flora and fauna. In a total, 91,006 insect galls were collected in 503 continuous forests and fragments trees. Continuous forests and fragments did not exhibit significant differences in the abundance, richness and composition of galling species. Landscape configuration, secondary vegetation around fragments and similarity in the number of sampled trees in fragments and continuous forest can explain the obtained results. Comparisons among terra firme, várzea and igapó forests showed a differential abundance and richness due to variation on tree diversity in each landscape. Higher galling species richness and abundance were found on terra firme forest, compared to igapó and várzea forests. Besides, the ratio between gallforming insect richness and sampled plant richness (GIR/SPR ratio) was significantly larger in igapó and terra firme forests, while várzea forest presented the lower values for this ratio. However, GIR/SPR ratio of várzea was approximately 2.5 higher than the greater value of this ratio on literature. In this sense, the poorest Amazonian vegetation (várzea) display one of the highest diversity of gall-forming insects, among all biogeographic realms already investigated. The results of this study corroborate Fernandes & Price (1988, 1991), Price et al. (1998) and Ribeiro (2003) hypotheses, once upper canopy represents a higrotermically stressed habitat, with higher sclerophylly levels, compared to a moist and non-scleromorphic understory environment of the Amazonian forests.

Defense against herbivores is considered the main factor influencing the evolution of specialized ant-plant associations. Early studies have demon strated that ants chemically recognize and recruit on host plant leaves due to herbivory simulation. Gall-forming insects are herbivores that are able to manipulate chemical plant properties and thus could change ant responses. The goal of this study was to evaluate recruitment responses of Allomerus octoarticulatus, an ant species associated with the myrmecophyte Hirtella myrmecophila, which is attacked by a gall-forming insect (Cecidomyiidae). We conducted two different experiments to assess whether, octoarticulatus is able to recognize chemical compounds from galled tissues and whether galled and ungalled healthy leaves represent different chemical stimuli to worker ants. We did not observe differences on recruitment between galled and ungalled leaves. However, gall tissue extracts did not induce ant recruitment on H. myrmecophila, while galled leaves extracts resulted in a stimulus to ant recruitment. These results indicate that insect gall tissues on this myrmecophyte probably do not possess compounds which can be detected by the ants. A local change seems to be very helpful to gall-forming insects because they are protected from, and by, ants which deter herbivores.