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The preparation of samples for traceological analysis is a key methodological aspect in the correct interpretation of use-wear; however, it is often poorly reflected in the archaeological literature. The treatment of osseous tissues is particularly overlooked, and receives even less attention than lithic raw materials. The presence of residues and contaminants on the surface of artefacts can conceal or even be mistaken for use-wear features, thereby affecting their interpretation. Therefore, the objective of this work is to contribute to the systematization of cleaning protocols and the preparation of experimental bone tools for traceological analysis. Through a sequential experiment, we tested the effects of different cleaning agents on experimental samples. Microscopic observation of the samples was complemented with microhardness testing. Our results made it possible to evaluate the cleaning effectiveness of the tested products, to determine how each product affects the bone surface at a microscopic level, and to assess the effects of these products on the treated bone tools in terms of cutting performance.

Bone artefacts have been widely studied because they can be difficult to identify in ancient chronologies. Taphonomical and zooarchaeological studies have demonstrated problems of equifinality of biotic and/or abiotic agents that create pseudo-tools: marrow fracturing of green bone by hominins and carnivores, trampling, etc. In particular, minimally elaborated bone tools are especially subject to the problems of identification of bone artefacts, as the criteria for characterizing their patterns of elaboration are not clearly defined. The aim of this study is to experimentally reconstruct the manufacture and use of minimally elaborated bone artefacts in order to evaluate their potential as tools involved in different activities, and to study the resulting use-wear traces. To achieve this goal, bovid long bones were experimentally broken via direct percussion on an anvil to extract the marrow and obtain blanks. Unmodified fragments were used in different tasks: scraping hide and wood, sawing wood, and cutting flesh. Another set of bone blanks were retouched to shape bone tools, which were then used in the same activities. This latter process was sequentially performed and recorded. Thus, using techniques supported by experimentation and microscopy, this study presents the use-wear analysis on minimally elaborated bone tools. The operative chain of used bones and knapped bone tools and their effects on the formation of different traces is explored. Further technological and taphonomical studies will complete our understanding about these processes, proving new clues for the study of hominin subsistence strategies.

Recently, there has been a proliferation of studies focused on traceological analyses of shell tools, most of which have been carried out using high magnifications. In contrast, wear patterns identified in other types of shell objects, such as ornaments, are usually analyzed at low magnifications. A new approach to the technological and functional analysis of Paleolithic Homalopoma sanguineum shell beads is proposed here. This taxon has been considered especially problematic in archaeomalacology for several reasons. First, it is a very rare species in on current coasts, so conducting perforation and suspension experiments is logistically difficult. This leaves two unique routes for the acquisition of data: analogous experiments on other seashells, which is not recommended based on the characteristics of the internal structure of this species, or directly through the study of archaeological specimens. Secondly, it has been considered impossible to successfully perform use-wear analyses due to the physical characteristics of this species. Lastly, the high reflective capacity of the species' inner nacreous layer can make its study via optical microscopy difficult. Given these issues, the goal of this study is to compare the advantages and disadvantages of the microscopy equipment conventionally used for use-wear analysis. By comparing multiple microscopes’ accuracy in identifying polishing, striation, and micro-chipping patterns, a set of criteria has been generated which can be used not only in analyses of H. saguineum, but in a wide range of nacreous ornaments.

Dental microwear has been used for the reconstruction of diet for decades, and given its long history, substantial changes in the methodologies and technologies used to observe and quantify microwear have occurred. For instance, early work on microwear used optical microscopy (OM), before being largely replaced by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). More recently, SEM-based studies have been overshadowed by confocal microscopy and dental microwear texture analysis. However, SEM is still the preferred method of data acquisition for buccal microwear analysis and significant improvements in OM have also occurred in recent years – particularly with the development of continuous focus systems for OM. Given the low-cost and simple upkeep of OM compared to SEM, this study seeks to explore the utility of OM for buccal microwear data acquisition compared to the methods established using SEM. A sample of 18 human teeth (originals and casts) were analyzed using both OM and SEM. Results show that more striations are observed using OM than when analyzing the same surface with SEM. However, the central counting trend is similar with both techniques. We can therefore conclude that OM is a consistent and user-friendly method that provides good image resolution together with a series of economic and technical advantages.

12th International Symposium on Knappable Materials, ISKM 12, Budapest, Hungary, 20 Nov 2019 - 24 Nov 2019; Journal of Lithic studies 8(2), (2021). doi:10.2218/jls.6546 special issue: "Proceedings of the 12th International Symposium on Knappable Materials, Budapest", Published by University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh

This paper details the fieldwork and multi-disciplinary studies carried out at the site Balma de la Vall (Montblanc, Tarragona). The first interventions, dating from the early 80’s, identified different occupational levels related to Final Upper Palaeolithic. From 2011 to 2013 research recommenced to re-define the archaeo-stratigraphic succession, obtain absolute dates, and characterize the occupational patterns generating the archaeological assemblages. The revised sequence comprises three archaeological levels, dated to the 15th millenium calibrated BP, and therefore associated to the Final Upper Magdalenian. The raw materials exploited, the assemblage composition and reduction sequences, define the occupational pattern as short duration or low intensity one. Balma de la Vall represents one of the first examples of human occupation of the Catalan Prelittoral Range., Este artículo presenta los trabajos realizados en el yacimiento de la Balma de la Vall (Montblanc, Tarragona). Las primeras excavaciones, a inicios de los 1980, identificaron distintos niveles de ocupación humana relacionados con el Paleolítico superior final. Entre los años 2011-2013 la excavación se reemprendió con los objetivos de definir la sucesión arqueo-estratigráfica, obtener dataciones absolutas, y caracterizar el tipo de ocupaciones que generaron los conjuntos arqueológicos. De esta forma, hemos identificado una secuencia que comprende tres niveles arqueológicos, con dataciones que los asocian al XV milenio cal BP, y por tanto al Magdaleniense superior final. Los análisis de las materias primas líticas empleadas, la composición de los conjuntos y las secuencias de reducción permiten definir las ocupaciones como cortas o de baja intensidad. La Balma de la Vall constituye así una de las primeras evidencias de ocupación humana de la Cordillera Prelitoral Catalana.

Evidence for the symbolic behavior of Neanderthals in the use of personal ornaments is relatively scarce. Among the few ornaments documented, eagle talons, which were presumably used as pendants, are the most frequently recorded. This phenomenon appears concentrated in a specific area of southern Europe during a span of 80 thousand years. Here, we present the analysis of one eagle pedal phalange recovered from the Châtelperronian layer of Foradada Cave (Spain). Our research broadens the known geographical and temporal range of this symbolic behavior, providing the first documentation of its use among the Iberian populations, as well as of its oldest use in the peninsula. The recurrent appearance of large raptor talons throughout the Middle Paleolithic time frame, including their presence among the last Neanderthal populations, raises the question of the survival of some cultural elements of the Middle Paleolithic into the transitional Middle to Upper Paleolithic assemblages and beyond., This research was financed by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (HAR2017-86509-P) (MICINN-FEDER PGC 2018-093925-B-C32) and Generalitat de Catalunya through 2017 SGR 1040 supported within the framework of CERCA Programme/Generalitat de Catalunya, and 2017 SGR 00011 and CLT009/18/00024 projects (the last two directed by J.-M.F. as the principal investigator). The research work of A.R.-H. was financed by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (FJCI-2015-24144, Subprograma Juan de la Cierva) and CGL2015-65387-C3-1-P (MINECO/FEDER). The research of J.I.M. was financed by the Juan de la Cierva-Incorporación (IJCI-2017-31445) MICINN fellowship. The research of G.G.-A. was financed by the Universitat de Barcelona APIF 2018 fellowship. The research work of J.L.F.-M. was financed by FPI program of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness MINECO/FSE (BES-2015-074931). The research work of J.-M.T. was funded by CNRS UMR 7041 ArScAn équipe Ethnologie préhistorique (P.Bodu). J.M. is the beneficiary of an Erasmus Mundus Doctorate scholarship for an International Doctorate in Quarternary and Prehistory (IDQP).

Rock crystal is a high-quality quartz variety with an excellent aptitude for knapping. Although it is relatively uncommon, in certain geological contexts such as that of our case study, rock crystal can serve as the raw material for a substantial number of tools. Nevertheless, very little research has been devoted to the study of this material. This lack of interest may stem from a variety of sources, from the difficulty of analysing a translucent material to its direct attachment to the symbolic world. Here we propose a methodology for the microscopic analysis of rock crystal artefacts in order to establish a better approach for understanding the functionality of this raw material. We comprehensively analysed a series of experimental tools before use by means of different microscopic equipment (OLM with a Nomarski prism and SEM). After the initial documentation, the tools were used in a sequential experimental programme in order to monitor and document the development of use-wear traces. Fourteen experiments were conducted on different materials and with different actions in which the different use traces as well as their respective orientations and sizes were recorded over a series of established times. The set of experiments resulted in different associations of use-wear traces (striations, chipping, rounding and polish) characteristic of the various worked materials and actions employed. We also documented how a technical mark such as the lancet can provide functional information. This is due to the formation process of the mark by percussion or pressure. While lancets formed from the impact point on the ventral side are distributed radially, those created by flake removal follow the kinematics of the tool. Finally, we demonstrated that rock crystal is a material that offers great possibilities for use-wear analyses once a set of technical and functional associations of mark analyses have been determined. Furthermore, although OLM with a Nomarski prism proved to be highly suitable in the analysis of rock crystal, its combination with other techniques such as SEM can provide additional information.

In general, quartz and most of non-flint rocks have not been extensively studied from a functional point of view. Very frequently the definitions of micro-features connected with flint surfaces have been used to describe those encountered on non-flint tools. This circumstance has repeatedly posed serious methodological problems for evaluating the accuracy of functional results when analysing use-wear on quartz and quartzite implements. This is due to the intrinsic divergences in morphology and distribution of use-wear with regard to the different lithic raw materials. Even though important efforts to systematise use-wear features on quartz have been done almost since the beginning of the discipline, there continues to be confusion and lack of standardisation regarding terminology in this aspect. In this paper, we try to contribute to new insights in this research by means of selecting examples from an extensive experimental programme involving different raw materials: from rock crystal (the purest form of quartz found in nature) to vein quartz and quartzite, with the latter two materials extensively used for knapping throughout Prehistory and still poorly understood in terms of microwear. For data recording, we preferentially used sequential experiments and resorted to both Optical Light and Scanning Electron Microscopy. We focused our interest on describing the main groups of wear features. The results obtained allowed us to assess the different mechanical behaviours under the stressors induced by tool-use from a group of raw materials with the same chemical composition but very different in structure. Furthermore, we propose the revision of some terms commonly employed when documenting micro-wear on quartz and similar rocks, as well as recurring concepts coming from materials and geological sciences (e.g. tribology, quartz exoscopy...).

Residue analysis is a method frequently used to infer the function of stone tools and it is very often applied in combination with use-wear analysis. Beyond its undeniable potential, the method itself has several intrinsic constraints. Apart from the exceptional circumstances necessary for residues to survive, the correct identification of the residue type is a very debatable topic. Before attempting to recognise ancient residues, a proper method should allow analysts to identify possible modern contaminants and exclude them from the final interpretation. Therefore, analysts should not underestimate the presence of modern contaminants and might learn how to discriminate the background noise due to handling. The main aim of this research is to provide some methodological improvements to residue analysis through the characterisation of some modern residues often present on the surface of stone tools (e.g. skin flakes, modelling clay). This characterisation was done by using both optical light microscopy (OLM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Finally, a special care in the post-excavation treatment of stone tools is claimed in order to avoid major contamination of the samples.

Over the last years, functional analyses and projectile fracture analyses on non-chert tools are becoming widespread and are drawing more attention in the archaeological literature. The actual tendencies of conducting holistic studies of the archaeological sites and their materials is allowing to obtain a better quality of data and a better understanding of the subsistence patterns of hunter-gatherer societies. In this way, rock crystal and other types of minerals and rocks of the quartzose group are getting a significant presence in the literature. In this paper, we intend to address a comprehensive approach, both macroscopic and microscopic, to an assemblage of experimental rock crystal projectiles to shed light on the identification of the diagnostic features of the use of small rock crystal pieces as projectile points. Aiming to avoid misidentifications, we did not only follow a sequential experiment design, but also carried out a comparative analysis between impact fractures and knapping fractures, marks from bipolar knapping on an anvil, and intentional bending fractures. Besides, in the elaboration of the experimental projectile assemblage we used different sets of targets to document possible differences in the quantity and disposition of the wear impact traces. This research is framed in the PGC2018-093925-B-C32 (MICINN-FEDER), the 2017SGR1040 and 2017SGR836 (AGAUR) and the 2018PFR-URV-B2-91 (URV) projects. Research at IPHES is framed in the CERCA program. J.L.F.M. is beneficiary of PhD research fellowship FPI MINECO/FSE (BES-2015-074931) associated with the MINECO project HAR2014-55131. D.L. is a beneficiary of PhD research fellowship AGAUR/FSE “L’ FSE inverteix en el teu futur” (2020 FI_B2 00164). R.H. is a beneficiary of a PhD research fellowship URV-Martí-Franquès Research Grant (2019PMF-PIPF-59). I.C. is beneficiary of a PEJ grant (PEJ2018-005226-P) funded by the Spanish National System of Garantía Juvenil and the European Social Fund.

The stone knapping industry is largely unknown from Galician Iron Age hillforts. Research into the material culture of these settlements is increasingly diverse, meaning this research is no longer reduced to techno-typological studies of pottery and metals, but also includes a wide range of approaches, including anthracological and carpological analyses, macrolithic tools, and so on. However, there have still been no studies on knapped stone tools. This gap in the research, which may be dependent on various factors, limits the overall perception of the economy of these communities. In this paper we present the data obtained from a use-wear study of a rock crystal tool from the O Achadizo hill fort (Boiro, A Coruña, Galicia). This tool was located in shell midden A, dated as Second Iron Age, and is of particular importance because of its pointed morphology and the configuration evidence on its perimeter. We carried out a macroscopic and microscopic analysis to obtain as much data on this piece as possible. Macroscopically we identified retouching as well as an impact fracture, and at the microscopic level we found several series of striations on the ventral face which are not in keeping with the use of the piece as a projectile tip. We decided to generate several “gigapixel” images of different areas of the tool, in order to record the order and arrangement of these striations, and to understand their origin. We identified differential orientation of the striations in the various sectors of the tool, suggesting a technical origin. The combination of the macro and microscopic analysis of both faces has allowed us to functionally interpret the tool as a sharp element.

The Middle-to-Upper Paleolithic transition in Europe covers the last millennia of Neanderthal life together with the appearance and expansion of Modern Human populations. Culturally, it is defined by the Late Middle Paleolithic succession, and by Early Upper Paleolithic complexes like the Châtelperronian (southwestern Europe), the Protoaurignacian, and the Early Aurignacian. Up to now, the southern boundary for the transition has been established as being situated between France and Iberia, in the Cantabrian facade and Pyrenees. According to this, the central and southern territories of Iberia are claimed to have been the refuge of the last Neanderthals for some additional millennia after they were replaced by anatomically Modern Humans on the rest of the continent. In this paper, we present the Middle-to-Upper Paleolithic transition sequence from Cova Foradada (Tarragona), a cave on the Catalan Mediterranean coastline. Archaeological research has documented a stratigraphic sequence containing a succession of very short-term occupations pertaining to the Châtelperronian, Early Aurignacian, and Gravettian. Cova Foradada therefore represents the southernmost Châtelperronian–Early Aurignacian sequence ever documented in Europe, significantly enlarging the territorial distribution of both cultures and providing an important geographical and chronological reference for understanding Neanderthal disappearance and the complete expansion of anatomically Modern Humans.