Search

Gastropods have survived several mass extinctions during their evolutionary history resulting in extraordinary diversity in morphology, ecology, and developmental modes, which complicate the reconstruction of a robust phylogeny. Currently, gastropods are divided into six subclasses: Caenogastropoda, Heterobranchia, Neomphaliones, Neritimorpha, Patellogastropoda, and Vetigastropoda. Phylogenetic relationships among these taxa historically lack consensus, despite numerous efforts using morphological and molecular information. We generated sequence data for transcriptomes derived from 12 taxa belonging to clades with little or no prior representation in previous studies in order to infer the deeper cladogenetic events within Gastropoda and, for the first time, infer the position of the deep-sea Neomphaliones using a phylogenomic approach. We explored the impact of missing data, homoplasy, and compositional heterogeneity on the inferred phylogenetic hypotheses. We recovered a highly supported backbone for gastropod relationships that is congruent with morphological and mitogenomic evidence, in which Patellogastropoda, true limpets, are the sister lineage to all other gastropods (Orthogastropoda) which are divided into two main clades 1) Vetigastropoda s.l. (including Pleurotomariida + Neomphaliones) and 2) Neritimorpha + (Caenogastropoda + Heterobranchia). As such, our results support the recognition of five subclasses (or infraclasses) in Gastropoda: Patellogastropoda, Vetigastropoda, Neritimorpha, Caenogastropoda, and Heterobranchia. [Compositional heterogeneity; fast-evolving; long-branch attraction; missing data; Mollusca; phylogenetics; systematic error.]

In this study, we sequenced two complete mitochondrial genomes of Amblyomma ovale, a tick of public health importance. Sequencing two distinct individuals, the resulting mitochondrial genomes were 14,756 and 14,760 bp in length and maintained the same gene order previously reported in Amblyomma. These were combined with RNA-seq derived mitochondrial sequences from three additional species, Amblyomma aureolatum, Amblyomma maculatum, and Amblyomma moreliae, to carry out mitogenome comparative and evolutionary analyses against all previously published tick mitochondrial genomes. We described a derivative genome rearrangement that isolates Ixodes from the remaining Ixodidae and consists of both a reverse translocation as well as an event of Tandem Duplication Random Loss. Genetic distance analyses indicated that cox2, nd1, nd5, and 16S are good candidates for future population studies in A. ovale. The phylogenetic analyses corroborated the utility of complete mitochondrial genomes as phylogenetic markers within the group. This study further supplements the genome information available for Amblyomma and facilitates future evolutionary and population genetic studies within the genus., JEU was supported by Peter Buck Postdoctoral Fellowship Program from the Smithsonian Institution (2017–2019) and Atracción Talento de la Comunidad de Madrid Fellowship Program (REFF 2019-T2/AMB-13166).

Ticks of the Amblyomma maculatum (Acari: Ixodidae) group are represented by three species: Amblyomma maculatum, Amblyomma tigrinum, and Amblyomma triste. This group is widely distributed throughout the Nearctic and Neotropical regions, from the United States of America (USA) to Argentina. They parasitize several vertebrates, including domestic mammals and humans. Nonetheless, the identification and distribution of the species within the group have been controversial but can be solved with integrative studies on their taxonomy and ecology. In Colombia, a Neotropical country from which up to 58 tick species have been reported, only Amblyomma maculatum Koch, 1844 (sensu stricto - s.s.) - morphotype II – has been molecularly confirmed. Here, specimens of the A. maculatum group from three departments of Colombia were examined by morphological and molecular analyses. The results confirmed the wide distribution of A. maculatum s.s. in Colombia. Furthermore, the presence of A. triste s.s. - morphotype I was confirmed for the first time at the molecular level, which broadens the distribution of this species in the American continent. Considering that both taxa are vectors of pathogens such as Rickettsia parkeri s.s., additional taxonomic, reproductive compatibility and niche distribution studies are needed, as well as the application of new molecular markers due to the controversial taxonomy. This will allow us to explore cryptic diversity within the recently established putative groups., Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación of Colombia - Minciencias for funding the PhD in Science-Biology of the student Paula Andrea Ossa López (PAOL) "Convocatoria del Fondo de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación del Sistema General de Regalías para la conformación de una lista de proyectos elegibles para ser viabilizados, priorizados y aprobados por el OCAD dentro del Programa de Becas de Excelencia cohorte 1–2019".

The genus Amblyomma Koch, 1844, is distributed in the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Oceania and is currently represented by 139 valid species, half of which are endemic to the Americas. This group of ticks has considerable ecological, economic, and public health importance. However, although many sequences and other information are available, investigations have been performed in isolated clades, and the evolutionary relationships of the genus Amblyomma are not evident. This study presents the phylogenetic relationships of the genus Amblyomma in America using probabilistic methods (Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian Inference). Partial sequences of five genes (four mitochondrial genes and one nuclear gene) from 69 species of Amblyomma were concatenated. Within the genus, some species have been described as endangered, mainly due to the status of their main host. In this study, sequences for the endangered species A. albopictum Neumann, 1899; A. macfarlandi Keirans, Hoogstraal and Clifford, 1973; and A. usingeri Keirans, Hoogstraal and Clifford, 1973, were determined for the first time. Although many phylogenetic relationships had strong statistical support, molecular data from different species must be increased to achieve better phylogenetic estimates in future studies., This article was supported by the project entitled “El género Amblyomma en América: filogenia y códigos de barra genéticos” (“The genus Amblyomma in America: phylogeny and genetic bar-coding”) (CONVENIO201713) funded by the Fundación para la promoción de la investigación y la tecnología – FPIT of the Bank of the Republic of Colombia and Universidad del Magdalena. The Peter Buck Postdoctoral Scholarship Program of the Smithsonian Institution and Atracción Talento de la Comunidad de Madrid Fellowship Program (REFF 2019-T2/AMB-13166) supported the contribution made by JEU.

We report the complete mitochondrial genome sequence ofCostapex baldwinae, a Caribbean representative of a predominantly Indo-Pacific genus of gastropods that occurs on sunken wood at bathyaldepths. The mitogenome is 15,321bp in length and has a base composition of 29.2% A, 41.8% T,12.0% C and 17.0% G. It contains 13 protein-coding, two ribosomal RNA, and 22 tRNA genes with thesame gene order and strand orientation as other non-toxoglossan neogastropods. Phylogenetic analy-ses indicate that the superfamily Turbinelloidea, represented by this species, diverged early within theNeogastropod radiation, forming the sister group to a clade that includes five of the seven presentlyrecognized superfamilies., The contribution of J. Uribe was supported by the Peter Buck Postdoctoral Fellowship Program from the Smithsonian Institution [2017–2019] and Atracción Talento de la Comunidad de Madrid Fellowship Program [REFF 2019-T2/AMB-13166]. The contribution of A.Fedosov was supported by the Russian Science Foundation grant [19-74-10020].

Changes in life history traits, including reproductive strategies or host shifts, are often considered triggers of speciation, affecting diversification rates. Subsequently, these shifts can have dramatic effects on the evolutionary history of a lineage. In this study, we examine the consequences of changes in life history traits, in particular host-type and phoresy, within the hypermetamorphic clade of blister beetles (Meloidae). This clade exhibits a complex life cycle involving multiple metamorphoses and parasitoidism. Most tribes within the clade are bee-parasitoids, phoretic or non-phoretic, while two tribes feed on grasshopper eggs. Species richness differs greatly between bee and grasshopper specialist clades, and between phoretic and non-phoretic genera. We generated a mitogenomic phylogeny of the hypermetamorphic clade of Meloidae, including 21 newly generated complete mitogenomes. The phylogeny and estimated lineage divergence times were used to explore the association between diversification rates and changes in host specificity and phoresy, using State-Dependent Speciation and Extinction (SSE) models, while accounting for hidden factors and phylogenetic uncertainty within a Bayesian framework. The ancestor of the hypermetamorphic Meloidae was a non-phoretic bee-parasitoid, and independent transitions towards phoretic bee-parasitoidism or grasshopper specialization occurred multiple times. Bee-parasitoid lineages that are non-phoretic have significantly higher relative extinction rates and lower diversification rates than grasshopper specialists or phoretic bee-parasitoids, while no significant differences were found between the latter two strategies. This suggests that these two life strategies contributed independently to the evolutionary success of Nemognathinae and Meloinae, allowing them to escape from the evolutionary constraints imposed by their hypermetamorphic life-cycle, and that the “bee-by-crawling” strategy may be an evolutionary “dead end”. We show how SSE models can be used not only for testing diversification dependence in relation to the focal character but to identify hidden traits contributing to the diversification dynamics. The ability of blister beetles to explore new evolutionary scenarios including the development of homoplastic life strategies, are extraordinary outcomes along the evolution of a single lineage: the hypermetamorphic Meloidae.

Costapex baldwinae, new species, is described from deep reef habitats of the southern and eastern Caribbean Sea, including Curacao, Dominica and Guadeloupe, where it occurs at bathyal depths on sunken wood. It is assigned to the genus Costapex based on phylogenetic analyses using partial sequences of COI, 12S and 16S mitochondrial genes that reveal it to be the sister species of two Indo-Pacific members of this genus. This new species most closely resembles Costapex martinorum (Cernohorsky, 1986) from the Philippines, but differs in being smaller, and in having a slightly lower spire and more prominently beaded spiral sculpture. Of the Caribbean species of costellariids, it is somewhat similar to Nodicostellaria laterculata (Sowerby II, 1874), which occurs in shallower water and has a white or tan rather than dark brown shell, and also a taller spire, more prominent axial sculpture, and a more rounded aperture. It differs from Vexillum styria (Dall, 1889), with which it co-occurs, in having a broader shell with a lower spire, prosocline rather than opisthocline axial ribs, and more prominent, strongly beaded spiral cords. Costapex baldwinae differs from both these taxa in having rachidian teeth with three cusps rather than five cusps (N. laterculata) or seven cusps (V. styria). The genus Costapex was previously known only from Indo-Pacific species. The discovery of this new species represents a significant expansion of the range of this genus into the Caribbean Sea.

We report the complete mitochondrial genome sequence of Harpovoluta charcoti, a circum-Antarctic species of volutid gastropod inhabiting bathyal soft bottom substrates. The mitogenome is 15,487 bp in length, has a base composition of A (28.3%), T (37.3%), C (16.0%) and G (18.4%), and contains 13 protein-coding genes, two ribosomal RNA genes, and 22 transfer RNA genes. Gene order and strand orientation are the same as in other non-toxoglossan neogastropods. Phylogenetic analyses support the monophyly of Volutidae, but not of the subfamilies Amoriinae or Cymbiinae as currently circumscribed.

BackgroundPolyplacophora, or chitons, have long fascinated malacologists for their distinct and rather conserved morphology and lifestyle compared to other mollusk classes. However, key aspects of their phylogeny and evolution remain unclear due to the few morphological, molecular, or combined phylogenetic analyses, particularly those addressing the relationships among the major chiton lineages.ResultsHere, we present a mitogenomic phylogeny of chitons based on 13 newly sequenced mitochondrial genomes along with eight available ones and RNAseq-derived mitochondrial sequences from four additional species. Reconstructed phylogenies largely agreed with the latest advances in chiton systematics and integrative taxonomy but we identified some conflicts that call for taxonomic revisions. Despite an overall conserved gene order in chiton mitogenomes, we described three new rearrangements that might have taxonomic utility and reconstructed the most likely scenario of gene order change in this group. Our phylogeny was time-calibrated using various fossils and relaxed molecular clocks, and the robustness of these analyses was assessed with several sensitivity analyses. The inferred ages largely agreed with previous molecular clock estimates and the fossil record, but we also noted that the ambiguities inherent to the chiton fossil record might confound molecular clock analyses.ConclusionsIn light of the reconstructed time-calibrated framework, we discuss the evolution of key morphological features and call for a continued effort towards clarifying the phylogeny and evolution of chitons.

Living species of Cephalopoda are classified into two main lineages, Nautiloidea and Coleoidea. Within the latter, two main groups are distinguished, Octopodiformes and Decapodiformes. Phylogenetic relationships within Coleoidea have been the subject of numerous studies and the relative phylogenetic position of several enigmatic groups, such as Vampyromorpha, Idiosepioidea and Spirulida, among others, has been contentious. Here, we reconstruct the phylogeny of Cephalopoda using all (39) currently reported complete mitochondrial (mt) genomes; in addition, we concatenated available partial mt genes from five important lineages (represented by genera Opisthoteuthis, Argonauta, Japetella, Thaumeledone and Spirula) that lack complete mt genomes, in order to include them in the phylogenetic analyses. The reconstructed trees recovered the monophyly of Octopodiformes (Octopoda + Vampyromorpha), of Octopoda and of Decapodiformes. Within Octopoda, the first split was between Cirrata and Incirrata and, within the latter, between Argonautoidea and Octopodoidea. Within Octopodoidea, the family Octopodidae, as traditionally defined, was nonmonophyletic. Within Decapodiformes, Sepiida were recovered sister to a clade including Idiosepiida as the first-diverging lineage. Among the remaining lineages of this clade, Myopsina were recovered sister to a 'pelagic' clade including Bathyteuthoidea, Spirulida and Oegopsida, to the exclusion of Sepiolida. Based on this fully resolved phylogeny, we inferred the evolution of gene rearrangements among the studied mitochondrial genomes, following a tandem duplication and random loss model. Finally, a chronogram was estimated under an uncorrelated relaxed molecular clock, which gave estimates of dates of major cladogenetic events within Cephalopoda that were considerably younger than those in previous studies., This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation CGL2013-45211-C2-2-P to R.Z. and BES-2011-051469 to J.E.U.

The great morphological and ecological diversity within the superfamily Trochoidea s. l. has in the past hindered the reconstruction of a robust phylogeny for the group based on morphology. Moreover, previous molecular phylogenies have disagreed on the monophyly and internal relationships of Trochoidea s. l., as well as on its relative phylogenetic position within Vetigastropoda. In order to further resolve the trochoidean and vetigastropod phylogenetic trees, we considerably increased the representation of trochoidean families for which no previous mitochondrial (mt) genomes were available: the complete mt genome of Cittarium pica (Tegulidae) and the nearly complete mt genomes of Tectus virgatus (Tegulidae), Gibbula umbilicaris (Trochidae) and Margarites vorticiferus (Margaritidae) were sequenced. In addition, the nucleotide sequences of all protein-coding and ribosomal RNA genes of Clanculus margaritarius (Trochidae) and of Calliostoma zizyphinum (Calliostomatidae) were derived from transcriptomic sequence data. The phylogenetic trees were reconstructed using probabilistic methods with Neomphalina as outgroup; these recovered with maximal support a clade of Trochoidea sensu Hickman & McLean (1990, Nat. Hist. Mus. Los Angeles County Sci. Series, 35: 1-169), which included superfamilies Angarioidea and Phasianelloidea deeply nested within superfamily Trochoidea sensu Williams (2012, Zool. Scripta, 41: 571-595). The families Trochidae + Calliostomatidae were the sister group to the remaining trochoidean lineages. Of these, the family Margaritidae was sister to a clade including Phasianelloidea + Angarioidea and Turbinidae + Tegulidae, this latter family being paraphyletic (Cittarium and Tectus need to be assigned to a new family). Gene order within the newly determined mt genomes was very stable (with only a few rearrangements, restricted to transfer RNA genes) and conformed to the vetigastropod and gastropod consensus genome organizations., This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (CGL2010-18216 and CGL2013-45211-C2-2-P to RZ; BES-2011-051469 to JEU; BES-2014-069575 to SA)

[EN] Long-branch attraction (LBA) is a well-known artifact in phylogenetic reconstruction. Sparse taxon sampling and extreme heterogeneity of evolutionary rates among lineages generate propitious situations for LBA, even defying probabilistic methods of phylogenetic inference. A clear example illustrating LBA challenges is the difficulty of reconstructing the deep gastropod phylogeny, particularly using mitochondrial (mt) genomes. Previous studies consistently obtained unorthodox phylogenetic relationships due to the LBA between the mitogenomes of patellogastropods (true limpets, represented only by Lottia digitalis), heterobranchs, and outgroup taxa. Here, we use the reconstruction of the gastropod mitogenomic phylogeny as a case exercise to test the effect of key methodological approaches proposed to counteract LBA, including the selection of slow-evolving representatives, the use of different outgroups, the application of site-heterogeneous evolutionary models, and the removal of fast-evolving sites. In this regard, we sequenced three new patellogastropod mt genomes, which displayed shorter branches than the one of Lottia as well as gene organizations more similar to that of the hypothetical gastropod ancestor. Phylogenetic analyses incorporating the mt genomes of Patella ferruginea, Patella vulgata, and Cellana radiata allowed eliminating the artificial clustering of Patellogastropoda and Heterobranchia that had prevailed in previous studies. Furthermore, the use of site-heterogeneous models with certain combinations of lineages within the outgroup allowed eliminating also the LBA between Heterobranchia and the outgroup, and recovering Apogastropoda (i.e., Caenogastropoda + Heterobranchia). Hence, for the first time, we were able to obtain a mitogenomic phylogeny of gastropods that is congruent with both morphological and nuclear datasets., The “Juan de la Cierva-Incorporación” postdoctoral fellowship IJCI- 2016-29566 to II

[EN] Understanding the relative role of different evolutionary processes leading to the extraordinary morphological, ecological and species diversity of cone snails requires a robust phylogeny, which thus far has been elusive. Here, we constructed a mitochondrial (mt) genome data set, which included four newly sequenced mt genomes, 25 publicly available mt genomes and 24 data sets with all mt protein¿coding and rRNA genes assembled from venom gland transcriptomes. In total, we analysed 42 different species representing 27 genera of cone snails, that is, about one third of the generic diversity of the group. In addition, we used the RNA¿Seq reads to assemble 21 nuclear genes, which were concatenated in a nuclear data set. Finally, a combined data set including mt and nuclear genes was also constructed. The three data matrices were analysed with probabilistic methods, site¿homogeneous and site¿heterogeneous models, and with protein¿coding genes both at the amino acid and nucleotide levels. Diet specialization, radular morphology and the type of protoconch (paucispiral or multispiral indicating lecithotrophic or planktonic larvae, respectively) as well as conotoxin diversity were mapped onto the reconstructed mt phylogeny, and a chronogram dating mayor cladogenetic events within the group was also reconstructed.

With more than 5,000 species, Conoidea is one of the most diversified superfamilies of Gastropoda. Recently, the family-level classification of these venomous predator snails has undergone substantial changes, on the basis of a phylogenetic tree reconstructed combining partial mitochondrial and nuclear gene sequences, and up to 16 families are now recognized. However, phylogenetic relationships among these families remain largely unresolved. Here, we sequenced 20 complete or nearly complete mitochondrial (mt) genomes, which were combined with mt genomes available in GenBank to construct a dataset that included representatives of 80% of the known families, although for some we had only one species or genus as representative. Most of the sequenced conoidean mt genomes shared a constant genome organization, and observed rearrangements were limited exclusively to tRNA genes in a few lineages. Phylogenetic trees were reconstructed using probabilistic methods. Two main monophyletic groups, termed “Clade A” and “Clade B”, were recovered with strong support within a monophyletic Conoidea. Clade A (including families Clavatulidae, Horaiclavidae, Turridae s.s., Terebridae, Drilliidae, Pseudomelatomidae, and Cochlespiridae) was composed of four main lineages, one of which was additionally supported by a rearrangement in the gene order. Clade B (including families Conidae, Borsoniidae, Clathurellidae, Mangeliidae, Raphitomidae, and Mitromorphidae) was composed of five main lineages. The reconstructed phylogeny rejected the monophyly of Clavatulidae, Horaiclavidae, Turridae, Pseudomelatomidae, and Conidae, indicating that several of the currently accepted families may be ill-defined. The reconstructed tree also revealed new phylogenetic positions for genera characterized as tentative (Gemmuloborsonia, Lucerapex, and Leucosyrinx), enigmatic (Marshallena) or challenging to place (Fusiturris), which will potentially impact the classification of the Conoidea., This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (CGL2013-45211-C2-2-P and CGL2016-75255-C2-1-P to RZ; BES-2011-051469, EEBB-I-15-10150 and EEBB-I-14-08866 to JEU), by the “Service de Systématique Moléculaire” (UMS 2700 CNRS-MNHN), by the ATM (“Action transversal du Muséum”) Emergences of the MNHN and by the project CONOTAX (funded by the French Agence Nationale de la Recherche, France; ANR-13-JSV7-0013-01 to NP). The access of JEU to the MNHN invertebrate collections and facilities was funded by the EU Synthesis Project.

Despite the extraordinary morphological and ecological diversity of Neritimorpha, few studies have focused on the phylogenetic relationships of this lineage of gastropods, which includes four extant superfamilies: Neritopsoidea, Hydrocenoidea, Helicinoidea, and Neritoidea. Here, the nucleotide sequences of the complete mitochondrial genomes of Georissa bangueyensis (Hydrocenoidea), Neritina usnea (Neritoidea), and Pleuropoma jana (Helicinoidea) and the nearly complete mt genomes of Titiscania sp. (Neritopsoidea) and Theodoxus fluviatilis (Neritoidea) were determined. Phylogenetic reconstructions using probabilistic methods were based on mitochondrial (13 protein coding genes and two ribosomal rRNA genes), nuclear (partial 28S rRNA, 18S rRNA, actin, and histone H3 genes) and combined sequence data sets. All phylogenetic analyses except one converged on a single, highly supported tree in which Neritopsoidea was recovered as the sister group of a clade including Helicinoidea as the sister group of Hydrocenoidea and Neritoidea. This topology agrees with the fossil record and supports at least three independent invasions of land by neritimorph snails. The mitochondrial genomes of Titiscania sp., G. bangueyensis, N. usnea, and T. fluviatilis share the same gene organization previously described for Nerita mt genomes whereas that of P. jana has undergone major rearrangements. We sequenced about half of the mitochondrial genome of another species of Helicinoidea, Viana regina, and confirmed that this species shares the highly derived gene order of P. jana., This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (CGL2010-18216 and CGL2013-45211-C2-2-P to RZ; BES-2011-051469 to JEU)

The nucleotide sequence of the complete mitogenome of the trilobite beetle, Platerodrilus sp. was determined. This is the first complete mitogenome reported for the family Lycidae (Elateroidea: Coleoptera). The newly determined sequence is 16,394 bp long and shows a relatively high AT content (76.2%). The gene arrangement of the trilobite beetle mt genome is the same found in other related beetle mitogenomes. The reconstructed tree recovered Elateroidea as a strongly supported monophyletic group but could not resolve phylogenetic relationships among studied elateroid families, including Lycidae., Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, 10.13039/501100004837 [CGL2013-45211-C2-2-P], [BES-2011-051469,CGL2013-45211-C2-2-P] and [CGL2015-66571-P MINECO/FEDER].

The nucleotide sequences of the complete or nearly complete mitochondrial (mt) genomes of seven vetigastropods were determined: Angaria neglecta (Angarioidea), Phasianella solida (Phasianelloidea), Granata lyrata (Seguenzioidea), Tegula lividomaculata and Bolma rugosa (Trochoidea), Diodora graeca (Fissurelloidea) and Lepetodrilus schrolli (Lepetodriloidea). While the mt genomes of the superfamilies Angarioidea, Phasianelloidea, Seguenzioidea and Trochoidea conform generally to the ancestral gene order of Vetigastropoda and Gastropoda, those of the superfamilies Fissurelloidea and Lepetodriloidea have suffered important rearrangements. The gene order of the mtDNA of Chrysomallon squamiferum, a representative of Neomphalina, was also analysed since it has been proposed to be closely related to Vetigastropoda, and showed a distinct arrangement. The reconstructed phylogenies recovered Neomphalina as a distinct gastropod lineage that is the sister group (only with moderate bootstrap support) of a clade including Vetigastropoda and Neritimorpha + Caeno‐gastropoda while the relative position of Heterobranchia and Patellogastropoda in the gastropod tree could not be determined definitively due to their long branches. Within the monophyletic Vetigastropoda, the superfamily Fissurelloidea was recovered as the sister group of two lineages, one including Lepetodriloidea as the sister group of Seguenzioidea + Halitoidea, the other including Phasianelloidea, Angarioidea and Trochoidea without resolved relationships. The long branches of Fissurelloidea were found to introduce significant tree instability in phylogenetic reconstruction. The new phylogeny supports that the loss of the right pallial gill occurred multiple times in vetigastropod evolution as previously suggested and that Phasianelloidea, Angarioidea and Trochoidea radiated from a common asymmetric (single‐gilled) ancestor that lived in the middle Palaeozoic., This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (CGL2010‐18216 and CGL2013‐45211‐C2‐2‐P to RZ; BES‐2011‐051469 to JEU) and the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (26291077 and 15H04412 to YK).

[Background] Due to their great species and ecological diversity as well as their capacity to produce hundreds of different toxins, cone snails are of interest to evolutionary biologists, pharmacologists and amateur naturalists alike. Taxonomic identification of cone snails still relies mostly on the shape, color, and banding patterns of the shell. However, these phenotypic traits are prone to homoplasy. Therefore, the consistent use of genetic data for species delimitation and phylogenetic inference in this apparently hyperdiverse group is largely wanting. Here, we reconstruct the phylogeny of the cones endemic to Cabo Verde archipelago, a well-known radiation of the group, using mitochondrial (mt) genomes., [Results] The reconstructed phylogeny grouped the analyzed species into two main clades, one including Kalloconus from West Africa sister to Trovaoconus from Cabo Verde and the other with a paraphyletic Lautoconus due to the sister group relationship of Africonus from Cabo Verde and Lautoconus ventricosus from Mediterranean Sea and neighboring Atlantic Ocean to the exclusion of Lautoconus endemic to Senegal (plus Lautoconus guanche from Mauritania, Morocco, and Canary Islands). Within Trovaoconus, up to three main lineages could be distinguished. The clade of Africonus included four main lineages (named I to IV), each further subdivided into two monophyletic groups. The reconstructed phylogeny allowed inferring the evolution of the radula in the studied lineages as well as biogeographic patterns. The number of cone species endemic to Cabo Verde was revised under the light of sequence divergence data and the inferred phylogenetic relationships., [Conclusions] The sequence divergence between continental members of the genus Kalloconus and island endemics ascribed to the genus Trovaoconus is low, prompting for synonymization of the latter. The genus Lautoconus is paraphyletic. Lautoconus ventricosus is the closest living sister group of genus Africonus. Diversification of Africonus was in allopatry due to the direct development nature of their larvae and mainly triggered by eustatic sea level changes during the Miocene-Pliocene. Our study confirms the diversity of cone endemic to Cabo Verde but significantly reduces the number of valid species. Applying a sequence divergence threshold, the number of valid species within the sampled Africonus is reduced to half., This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (CGL2013-45211-C2-2-P and CGL2016-75255-C2-1-P (AEI/FEDER, UE)) to RZ; BES-2011-051469 to JEU; BES-2014-069575 to SA; Doctorado Nacional-567, Colciencias-Universidad Nacional de Colombia to AME., We acknowledge support by the CSIC Open Access Publication Initiative through its Unit of Information Resources for Research (URICI).