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An increasing number of studies have examined lay meanings of addiction. The purpose of this study was to explore whether a generalized conception of an addiction mind-set was evident in the beliefs of a sample of 1,062 Norwegian adults responding to an online survey. The respondents were given a rating task in the following form: “Addiction to [substance/behavior] is/represents [descriptive term].” For each of the nine different addictive behaviors (cocaine, cannabis, alcohol, gambling, smoking, amphetamine, sedatives, snus, and heroin), the respondents rated their endorsement of 11 descriptive terms (mental states): reduced self-determination, obsession, strong urge, strong appetite, strong craving, reduced moral competence, reduced rational decision making, compulsion, habit, conflicting desire, and reduced willpower. Principal components analyses identified two distinct factors for six addictive behaviors: cocaine, cannabis, alcohol, gambling, amphetamine, and heroin. The endorsement levels of the descriptive items of the two factors were consistently high. Sedatives, smoking, and snus did not fit into the two factors. Norwegian adults thus seem to ascribe to a model of an addiction mind-set comprising two distinct versions, the irresistible, involuntary (Craving-compulsion version), and the voluntary resistible dimensions of addiction (Reduced agency version).

Previous research on attitudes toward a restrictive alcohol policy has mainly focused on variables such as demographics and own drinking as possible predictors. The present article adds to the existing literature by examining the impact of a set of beliefs and personal experiences with the harm caused by other peoples' drinking. We suggest and test an analytic model in which the predictors are ranked according to their conceptual proximity to attitudes. The data stem from a Web survey in the Norwegian adult population (N = 1,951), mapping the respondents' attitudes toward pricing policy and availability restrictions, belief in the harm-limiting effect of such measures, belief in the harm caused by drinking, and personal experiences with harm from others' drinking. In line with the suggested model, belief in the effectiveness of restrictive measures and belief in the harm caused by drinking appeared as the strongest predictors. Attitudes were less strongly related to own drinking, and particularly to demographics. Altogether, 41% of the variance in attitudes was explained. Negative experience with other peoples' drinking was a statistically significant predictor only among young respondents. The strong relationships between proximal predictors, such as belief in the harm caused by drinking and belief in the harm-limiting effect of restrictive measures and attitudes, indicate that support for a restrictive policy may be increased by focusing on awareness of such issues rather than on more distal predictors. However, further research is needed to acquire more knowledge about the mechanisms behind these associations. (PsycINFO Database Record

Aims: The use of fear appeals with disgusting graphical content is part of current practice in health campaigns. Previous studies have suggested both a detrimental and a beneficial effect of disgust in fear appeals on different types of outcome measures. We were interested in whether disgust in anti-smoking messages decreases or increases persuasion as measured by motivation to abstain from smoking and attitudes towards smoking. Methods: In two online experiments (total N = 1045), smokers (26%) and non-smokers were randomly assigned to watch fear appeal anti-smoking ads that elicited high versus moderate levels of disgust but similar levels of fear. Smokers reported motivation to quit, while non-smokers reported motivation to not start smoking. All participants reported explicit attitudes toward smoking and performed an Implicit Association Test that measures implicit attitudes toward smoking and cigarettes. Findings: There were no differences between these conditions, except on a measure of impli...

We explored a novel task paradigm where participants from the online work marketplace Amazon Mechanical Turk were given the choice to quit or continue an unfinished boring task for identical economic rewards. In Studies 1a and 1b, about half the participants chose to continue (corresponding to an average of 55 and 35 cents in foregone earnings). Participants’ self-reported reasons for continuing involved various types of persistence motives, reflecting a desire to persist or complete per se. Studies 2, 3a, 3b, and 3c ruled out the possibility that people continued because they enjoyed the task or believed there were additional rewards for continuing. Study 4 showed that the choice to quit/continue was associated with the manner in which the choice was presented (persistence test vs. decision-making test) and individual differences in dispositional persistence motives. The present data indicate that motivational forces independent of the focal reward may affect intertemporal decisions.

This study investigated whether Dutch and Norwegian parents differ in their perceptions on parental measures and how parents view governmental responsibility to prevent adolescents from substance use. Data were derived from a cross-sectional internet survey conducted in the Netherlands and Norway. A subsample of Dutch (n = 2017) and Norwegian parents (n = 844) was selected. Parents were asked about their perceptions on different parental measures in relation to substance use, e.g. setting the right example, setting rules, parental behavior in the presence of adolescents, and how they view governmental responsibility compared with parental responsibility in relation to substance use among adolescents. The parental responsibility for taking parental measures against adolescents’ substance use was emphasized by both the Dutch and Norwegian parents. Compared to Dutch parents, Norwegian parents were slightly more positive about taking parental measures. Dutch frequent and heavy drinkers and Norwegian men were the most negative about parental perceptions on alcohol measures. Regarding perceptions on parental measures on drug use, Dutch and Norwegian lifetime cannabis users and current cannabis users supported parental measures to a lesser extent. Overall, the results suggest that both Dutch and Norwegian parents feel the responsibility to provide measures to prevent children from alcohol and drug use, irrespective of the alcohol and drug policy in their own country. Both the Dutch and Norwegian supported parental measures to prevent adolescents from substance use.

Aim: From 2005 to 2009, increased support for restrictive alcohol policy measures was observed in the Norwegian population. This article addresses whether this increase was mediated by changes in belief about the effectiveness of restrictive measures and belief about the harm caused by drinking. Method: The data were derived from five surveys conducted during the period 2005–2009 (N = 7244). In each survey, we used identical measures of attitudes towards regulation of price and availability, belief in the effectiveness of such measures and belief in the association between overall consumption and harm. Results: During the period, there was an increase in support for restrictive policy measures; in belief in the effectiveness of these measures and in belief in the harm caused by drinking. Increased support for restrictive measures was partly mediated by changes in beliefs in terms of statistically significant indirect effects from both belief in the effectiveness of such measures and belief in the harm caused by drinking. Half of the increased support for restrictive measures could be attributed to changes in beliefs. Conclusion: Strengthening people’s belief in the effectiveness of restrictive measures and in the harm caused by drinking may increase public support for restrictive alcohol policy measures.

Aim: This study aims to explore differences between Dutch and Norwegian adults in the acceptance of illicit drug use in relation to the normalization thesis.Methods: Data were collected in November 2008. In total, 2150 Norwegian and 5616 Dutch respondents were included and the samples were weighted. The level of acceptance was assessed by measuring beliefs and opinions among Dutch and Norwegian people of 16 years and older and among different user groups in the Netherlands and Norway. t-Tests, χ2-tests and multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the differences between both countries.Findings: Norwegian and Dutch respondents were somewhat reserved concerning the acceptance of illicit drug use. However, the acceptance of illicit drugs among Dutch respondents was significantly higher compared to Norwegian respondents. Regarding different user groups, even non-users in both countries showed a significant difference, with Dutch non-users accepting illicit drug use to a larger extent than Norweg...

AIMS: To examine whether Dutch and Norwegian adults differ in their opinion on policy measures that may prevent young people from problematic drinking. METHODS: Data were derived from a web-based cross-sectional study. In this study, only Dutch and Norwegian adults (aged ≥24 years) were included (n(NL) = 5023, n(NO )= 1916). Opinions on policy items concerning restrictive and educational measures were examined together with alcohol consumption. RESULTS: Differences between the opinions of the Dutch and Norwegians concerning the restrictive and educational measures were small. In both countries, the support for restrictive measures was predicted by female gender, higher age and less own alcohol consumption. For the educational measures, the explained variance in the Norwegian and Dutch sample was relatively low; this indicates that opinion was more strongly predicted by other factors. CONCLUSION: This study indicates that, despite the differences between the Dutch and Norwegian alcohol policy, differences in opinion are small between Dutch and Norwegian respondents, especially regarding restrictive measures that may prevent young people from drinking. Language: en

The aim of this study was to determine to what extent the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) extended with moral norm and descriptive norm is able to predict intentions not to drink and drive. We also wanted to examine whether different processes guide intentions among young drivers (35 years and below) versus drivers aged above 35 years, and women's versus men's intentions. Questionnaires were sent to a sample of 4000 people in Norway aged between 18 and 70 years, and were completed by 1025 respondents. Analyses were conducted among those who had a driver's licence and who reported drinking at least 1-2 times per year, resulting in a sample of 879 individuals (46.6% were men, 30.3% were 35 years and younger, M=43.9 years). The results showed that the TPB variables explained 10% of the variance in intentions in the sample as a whole, and that the extension variables added 2% to the explained variance after controlling for the impact of the TPB components. Perceived behavioural control was the strongest predictor of intentions (β=0.24, p0.001), followed by descriptive norm (β=-0.12, p0.001), attitude (β=0.09, p0.01) and moral norm (β=0.08, p0.05). Several group differences were found. The extended TPB model explained 16% and 5% of men's and women's intentions, respectively, and 26% and 9% of the variance in intentions among young and older drivers, respectively. The practical implications of these results for the development of interventions to encourage drivers not to drink and drive will be outlined.

The aim of this study was twofold: (i) to test the utility of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) in predicting intentions to quit smoking and subsequent behaviour in two age groups, and among women and men, and (ii) to examine whether descriptive norms, moral norms and past behaviour predict intentions and behaviour beyond the impact of the TPB components. Analyses were based on data from a prospective sample of 447 daily smokers (adolescents 16–19 years, n = 174, M = 17.5, adults 35–55 years, n = 311, M = 44 years). The TPB accounted for 31.8% and 38% of the variance in intentions in the adolescent and adult groups, respectively. The extension variables added 12.6% and 12.1% to the explained variance of intentions in the adolescent and adult groups. Affective attitude was the strongest predictor of intentions in both age groups. A number of moderating effects of gender and age were found in predicting intentions. Moreover, intentions and perceived behavioural control (PBC) had a direct impact on b...

Introduction: The prevalence of use of snus (low-nitrosamine smokeless tobacco, Swedish type) has reached epidemic proportions in parts of Northern Europe, and the trend is escalating. Knowledge of variables influencing use of snus is scarce, and this study set out to explore expectancies related to the use of snus as possible determinants of intentions to use snus in the next 6 months. Methods: The data stem from a questionnaire survey among university students in 2004 and included 141 snus users (mean age = 20.9 years, SD = 2.1). Thirteen items derived from a study by Juliano & Brandon (2004) were adapted to the use of snus, and a confirmatory factor analysis was conducted. The predic tive power of expectancies on snus intentions and behavioral experience on intentions were examined using structural equation modeling. Results: Five meaningful and interpretable expectancy factors were confirmed by the factor analysis: “negative affect,” “weight control,” “health risks,” “quitting smoking facilitation,” and “craving reduction.” “Health risks” turned out to be the only expectancy factor that significantly predicted intentions to use snus. In addition, “current snus behavior” had a significant direct effect on intentions. Altogether, the model explained 27% of the variance in intentions. Conclusions: The findings suggest that expectancies of snus use can be applied to understand intentions to use snus. However, the range of expectancy items should preferably be broadened in future studies, and more attention should be paid to the inclusion of groups that differs in nicotine experience.

This paper is based on the notion that desire represents an important motivational aspect of the decision-making process. Thus, we examined the hypotheses that desire (1) predicts behavioral intentions and (2) mediates the effects of theory of planned behavior (TPB) components and past behavior on an individual’s intention to quit smoking. The analysis is based on three separate conditions in which the intention to quit smoking during the next 1, 4, or 6 months, respectively, was measured; the three conditions contained identical variables. The results of the hierarchical regression analysis show that there are sufficient grounds for including desire as an additional predictor in the TPB model. The results also show that desire mediates the effects of attitudes, norms, and past behavior on intention. However, the mediating role of desire was not obtained for the relationship between PBC and intention. Theoretical implications and recommendations for future research are suggested.

The aim of the present study was to examine the relations between an extended Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and the intention to quit smoking in light of Construal Level Theory (CLT). The basic...

It was hypothesised that: (i) intentions to quit smoking were predictable from group identity, self-identity, moral norms and past quit attempts, beyond the components of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), and (ii) that past experiences with the behaviour (quit attempts) would increase the predictive utility of the extended TPB model on intentions. The data was collected among 357 daily smoking students (M = 24 years). The TPB components accounted for 12.3% of the variance in quitting intentions, while the extension variables added 16.5% to the explained variance in intentions beyond the impact of the TPB. Past behaviour had the strongest impact on intentions (α = 0.30), followed by moral norms (α = 0.25), perceived behavioural control (PBC, α = 0.20), attitude (α = 0.18) and group commitment (α = −0.11). By splitting the sample into three categories of past quit attempts the picture changed, revealing that the predictive utility of the TPB increased with the number of quit attempts (no past quit atte...

The present study used meta-analysis to evaluate the role of self-identity in the theory of planned behavior (TPB). Altogether, 40 independent tests (N = 11607) could be included in the review. A large, sample-weighted average correlation between self-identity and behavioral intention was observed (r+ = .47). Multiple regression analyses showed that self-identity explained an increment of 6% of the variance in intention after controlling for the TPB components, and explained an increment of 9% of the variance when past behavior and the TPB components were controlled. The influence of self-identity on behavior was largely mediated by the strength of behavioral intentions. Theoretical implications of the findings are discussed. jasp_611 1085..1105

The purpose of the present paper was to examine the path from intentions to quit smoking to the actual quitting process in light of the theory of planned behavior. Data derives from a longitudinal internet survey (N = 939) over a period of 4 months. Attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control (PBC), and past behavior emerged as significant direct predictors of quitting intention (R2 = 34%). Ordinal regression analysis showed that intention, PBC, planning, past quit attempts and habit were significant predictors of the subsequent quitting process. Consistent with previous research the results show that addicted individuals have serious problems in sticking to their initial plans. Theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed.

This paper examines the socio‐cognitive processes underlying intentions to use condoms and contraceptive pills, using the Theory of Planned Behaviour extended with prototypes in a group of young Norwegian adolescents. The data are derived from a questionnaire survey comprising all pupils in Grade Nine at three schools in Oslo (n = 196). Using hierarchical multiple regression analyses, the results showed that prototypes and normative beliefs, especially partner's opinion, were the most important predictors for boys' condom decisions. For girls' condom decisions, normative and attitudinal considerations were most important. Perceived risk of getting sexually transmitted diseases was the most important predictor among behavioural beliefs for condom intention for both girls and boys. Normative beliefs, and especially parental opinions, were most important for girls' decisions to use contraceptive pills. Implications of the findings are discussed.

Much of human social behavior in modern societies entails symbolic contributions. According to the concept introduced here, symbolic contributions serve a substitute function, allowing individuals to continue to be accepted by society even when they are incapable of direct, or so-called “actual” contributions (e.g., math skills, language skills, social and moral competence). Symbolic contributions, such as verbal statements of intention to act, become necessary psychologically when the person lacks training/experience or is not free to act. Thus, lack of ability or absence of occasion to act leads to adopting symbolic forms of contributions. Correspondingly, people would not take these symbolic routes if they were competent, experienced, and in contexts that enabled them to act directly.

We argue that explicit cognitions in the form of mental representations (MR), in addition to habits, constitute an important aspect of smoking. Two studies were performed with the aim of developing a measure of MR in the context of smoking behaviour. MRs refer to explicit and conscious cognitive processes which involve the strength of thoughts, planning, anticipation and self-awareness regarding future actions. In Study 1 we generated a pool of items assumed to assess smokers’ MRs, and explored the factor structure and internal consistency of the MR scale. In Study 2 we further expanded the theoretical aspects of the scale, and we explored the psychometric properties of the MR scale in terms of temporal stability and convergent and discriminant validity. The results indicated that these properties were satisfactory, thus encouraging the further use of the MR scale in the domain of addictive behaviours. Implications of the results are discussed.

This study examined the ability of the theory of planned behavior (TPB)to predict students' intentions to quit smoking and the subsequent behavior6 months later. In addition, the impact of past behavior, moral norms, self-identity, group identity, and positive/negative anticipated affect was examined. The intention-behavior relationship was examined by dividing the sample in four subgroups: inclined actors/abstainers and disinclined actors/abstainers. Analyses were based on data from a prospective sample of 698 smokers. Attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control accounted for 36% (adjusted R2) of the variance in intentions. Moral norms, positive anticipated affect, group identity, and past behavior added 9% (adjusted R2) to the explained variance in intention, beyond the effect accounted for by the TPB components. Subsequent behavior was predicted by intentions (adjusted R2= .12). Past behavior, moral norms, self-identity, and the Past Behavior x Intention and Moral Norm x Negative Affect interactions explained an additional 9% (adjusted R2) of the variance in behavior. Inclined abstainers constituted the main source of the discrepancy between intention and behavior.

The present study examined the moderating effects of two measures of future orientation on the relation between intention, planning, and past behavior on the one hand, and quitting smoking on the other. The degree of future orientation was assessed by the Consideration of Future Consequences (CFC) Scale and the Stanford Time Perspective Inventory (STPI). Both CFC and STPI significantly moderated the intention–quitting behavior and past behavior–quitting behavior relationships. CFC also moderated the relation between planning and quitting behavior, whereas STPI failed to moderate the planning–quitting relation. The results indicate that the extent to which a person is future oriented represents an important moderating variable when it comes to the relation between deliberative processes and actual behavior. The implications of the results are discussed.

This study tested the ability of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) to predict adolescents’ intentions to reduce smoking and the subsequent behaviour one year later. In addition, past behaviour (PB), moral norms, self-identity as a smoker, group identification, group norms and action planning were assessed. A prospective sample of 145 adolescents (M = 14 years, Time 1) participated in the study. The TPB provided good predictions of intentions (adjusted R 2 = 0.28). An extended TPB model including self-identity, moral norms, and the group identification and group norm interaction accounted for 39% (adjusted R 2) of the variance in intentions. The TPB components did not have a direct impact on subsequent behaviour, while PB and the perceived behavioural control (PBC) intention interaction accounted for 35% of the variance in behaviour after one year. The practical implications of these results for the development of interventions to encourage adolescent smokers to reduce or quit smoking are outlined.

The present study explored the extent to which the two personality factors – perceived control and dispositional optimism – are related to psychological adaptation after marital disruption. A sample of 658 recently divorced individuals participated in the study by filling in an anonymous questionnaire. Bivariate findings revealed that perceived control and optimism were strongly related to psychological adaptation. However, when both predictors were included in a multiple regression analysis, optimism had a much larger effect than perceived control. The findings clearly indicate that personality factors account for a substantial proportion of the variance in adaptation to marital disruption.

The present study examined adolescents' perception of three smoking targets: a typical boy who smokes, a typical girl who smokes, and a typical nonsmoker, using 12 characteristics. Data were collected nationally from school classes among 14-year-old Norwegians in 2001 (N = 2153). Factor analysis indicated three correlated factors (Social attraction, Positive, and Negative) across the prototypes, but only the Social attraction scale had satisfactory reliability (Cronbach's alpha > 0.70). In addition, results show that the nonsmoker prototype may represent a goal state for nonsmokers when based on all three subscales, whereas for smokers, the prototypical smoker only represented a goal state for the Social attraction scale. Implications of the findings and methodological considerations are discussed.

The purpose of the present study was to explore the predictive power of four predictors (level of household education, rules for indoor smoking, awareness of health risks of ETS, and attitudes towards ETS) in accounting for level of children's exposure to environmental tobacco smoking (ETS) as reported by parents. The data derive from two nationwide interview surveys comprising 1000 households with 3-year-old children performed in 1995 and 2001. Only households in which one of the parents was a current smoker (N=212 in 1995 and 179 in 2001) were included. The four predictors explained a higher portion of the variance in level of exposure to ETS in 1995 (R2=.30) as compared to 2001 (R2=.21). The relative importance of the predictors in 1995: rules for indoor smoking (beta=.35), attitudes (beta=.19), level of education (beta=.17), while awareness of risk had an insignificant effect. For 2001 only two predictors were significant: attitudes (beta=.41) and level of education (beta=.16). The results suggest a shift in intervention strategy from a focus on structural to individualised strategies.

The present study examined whether the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) could predict parents’ intentions not to smoke indoors in the presence of their children. Moral norms, smoker identity, pare...

Purpose The study investigates the predictive value of body image, self-esteem and gender for adolescent dieting at ages 15, 18 and 21 and whether adolescents' self-esteem moderates the relationship between body image and dieting. Method Data stem from the Norwegian Longitudinal Health Behaviour Study (NLHB study): Adult by the Year 2000 (‘Voksen i ar 2000’). The NLHB study is a 10-year prospective cohort study based on self-completed questionnaires investigating health behaviour and lifestyle patterns among Norwegian adolescents. This paper presents data from Wave II (1992), Wave IV (1995) and Wave VI (1998), thus covering the ages 15, 18 and 21. Analyses are based on the 487 respondents participating at all three timepoints. Results At all ages included, 25% of the girls reported they had dieted several times over the past year, while the corresponding figure for boys was 5%. Among boys, self-esteem and body image contributed to the same extent in the prediction of dieting, while only body image proved a significant predictor among girls, increasing in importance over time. Interaction between self-esteem and body image was present among young boys (ages 15 and 18) only. Conclusions Self-esteem and body image play quite different roles in the prediction of dieting among girls and boys. The difference is not only related to strength of association between the variables, but, more importantly, to qualitatively different underlying processes. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and Eating Disorders Association.

Purpose of review This is a review of literature on the modification of adolescent health behaviour published in the period from September 2002 to October 2003. The data are based upon searches conducted in Medline, PsychInfo and PsychLit. Recent findings The review shows that most of the papers are concerned with predicting various types of health behaviours. Literature on large-scale interventions (including information campaigns) on health behavioural change is scarce. Nevertheless, a number of interesting issues, such as the Gateway Hypothesis, the role of peer influence, and improvement of theoretical models were raised. Summary Comprehensive reviews on specific topics may play an important role in the present context. Large-scale interventions guided by theoretical perspectives, permitting measurement of success before the materialization of behavioural changes, are needed. Research on health behaviours among adolescents from a late-modern perspective should be encouraged.

In a national sample of Norwegian smokers ( N = 421) a slight optimistic bias in relation to risk of lung cancer as compared to other smokers was observed when using the indirect method for estimating optimistic bias in contrast to a slight pessimistic bias with the direct method. These findings mainly replicate those of a similar study of British smokers that used unconditional risk measures, but extend them by showing that conditional risk measures produced similar results.

Background It is important to know whether the public opinion on drug policies can be measured in a reliable and valid way. One of the threats to the validity of surveys on attitudes toward drug policies are wording effects, of which the most well-known is the forbid–allow asymmetry, i.e., people are often more willing to not allow something than to forbid it. The aim of the present study was to estimate the size of the allow–forbid asymmetry when measuring attitudes toward drug policy issues in the Norwegian adult population. Methods The data derive from a sample of 2182 adult Norwegian, aged 18–70, drawn from a large online panel comprising more than 50,000 Norwegian citizens (55% response rate). According to a 2 (allow vs. forbid)×2 (question vs. statement) between-subjects design, participants indicated support for the following three restrictive drug policies: (i) to allow/forbid wine in grocery stores, (ii) to allow/forbid smoking in parks and other public places and (iii) to allow forbid cannabis for recreational purposes. Results There was not a significant difference between the framing conditions (forbid–allow) across the three policies, with an estimated difference of 2 percentage points (95% confidence intervals 0–5). Conclusion The results suggest that survey research in the present context of drug policy is indeed more of a fact-finding enterprise than a process of constructing data.

The present study predicts adults' intention to eat healthily, using the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and additive and moderating effects of role identity, group norms and group identification, derived from identity theory and self categorisation theory. A total of 735, 25 years old adults participated in a mailed questionnaire survey in 1997. The TPB explained 52% of the variance in young adults' decision to eat healthily, with perceived behavioural control and subjective norms being the strongest (β= .56, p < .001) and weakest (β = .05, p < .005) determinants, respectively. Although, role identity accounted for an additional amount of 4% of the variance in behavioral intention, past behaviour did not moderate the impact of role identity on intention, as hypothesised. Neither perceived group norm nor group identification added to the prediction of intention over and above the TPB. However, group identification was found to act as a moderator on the relation between group norm and behavioura...

The purpose of the study was to assess whether psychosocial responses to marital disruption were best arranged along one single dimension ranging from maximum positive to maximum negative responses, or whether positive and negative responses constituted two separate and distinct dimensions. Participants were 658 recently divorced individuals. A confirmatory factor analysis revealed that a two-factor model provided a better fit to the data than a one-factor model. Moreover, a number of external variables differentiated between positive and negative responses, indicating that such responses reflect two separate domains. Thus, the findings support the notion that psychosocial responses after marital disruption comprise a bidimensional rather than a unidimensional pattern. The findings are discussed within the general framework of positive-negative asymmetry and the idea that positive and negative evaluations belong to different psychological system.

The present study investigated the relationship bewteen social representations about smokers and smoking, and attitudes towards smoking restrictions. Data were collected by means of questionnaires among a sample of employees (n=4224)in the Norwegian Navy. Based on the results from first- and second-order principal components analyses, three dimensions of social representations were identified. The dimensions were labeled “negative representations”, “positive representations” and “social influence”. The three dimensions clearly differentiated between daliy, occasional and non-smokers. Further, structural equation modeling of the relation between social representations and attitudes towards smoking restrictions, indicated that social representations function as intermediating factors of the effect from smoking states upon attitudes towards smoking restrictions. The findings indicate the need to focus upon social psyshological processes taking place in the ineraction between groups of smokers and non-smokers, as understanding of such processes may be relevant in preventing the development of group conflict.

The purpose of this study was to explore the distribution and role of causal beliefs, inferences of responsibility, and moral emotions on deservingness of help to addicts among Norwegian adults using the social motivational model of Weiner. The data derives from a web panel survey of Norwegian adults aged 20 to 69 years (N = 1062, response rate 67%) in 2011. They responded to a questionnaire tapping into the above measures for nine different addictions in terms of a hypothetical person: "Think of a person addicted to-." The respondents mainly located the cause of the addictions inside the person and attributed the responsibility for the problem to the individual. In general, addicted persons did not receive a high mean level of sympathy, whereas a high mean level of willingness to provide help and assistance was reported. However, there were substantial variations among the nine addictions as to mean rating levels, with snus and sedatives as the two extreme counterparts. Separate SEM analyses for the nine addictions showed support for Weiner's mediation model with inferences of responsibility and sympathy (moral emotion) as effective mediators for deservingness of help. This pattern was stable across the nine addictions. Implications for interventions and possible limitations are discussed. Studien undersøker hva nordmenn mener om ni former for avhengighet: kokain, heroin, amfetamin, hasj, beroligende legemidler, snus, røyking, pengespill og alkohol. 1000 voksne nordmenn fikk spørsmål om: Hva de mente var årsaken til avhengigheten Om den avhengige burde holdes ansvarlig for sin avhengighet Om de følte sympati eller sinne mot den som var avhengig Om den avhengige fortjente hjelp Resultatene viste at de spurte i hovedsak plasserte årsak og ansvar for avhengigheten hos den avhengige selv.Avhengige individer utløste heller ikke mye sympati, men et relativt høyt nivå når det gjaldt å fortjene hjelp. Det var imidlertid relativt store variasjoner mellom de ulike formene for avhengighet. Av de ni avhengighetene mente folk at snusbrukere fortjente minst hjelp, mens folk som var avhengige av beroligende legemidler fortjente mest hjelp. Om metoden Et utvalg (såkalt nettpanel) bestående av 1062 voksne nordmenn i alderen 20-69 deltok i 2011 i en spørreundersøkelse. Deltagerne ble bedt om å tenke på en person (hypotetisk) som var avhengig av ni former for avhengighet. Deretter svarte de på et spørreskjema som baserte seg på en teoretisk modell (Weiner’s modell for ansvarstilskriving) for hjelpeatferd. Weiner foreslår at en legperson først vurderer om årsaken til at denne personen er blitt avhengig befinner seg hos personen selv (indre årsak) eller utenfor (ytre årsak). Deretter om personen skal holdes ansvarlig for sin avhengighet, for så å vurdere hvor mye sympati og sinne (moralske emosjoner) den avhengige utløser, før en bestemmer seg for hvor mye hjelp han eller hun fortjener. Analysene viste at modellen passet for alle formene for avhengighet, og ga støtte til Weiner’s modell der ansvar og moralske emosjoner fungerte som formidlere av virkningen på mengden av fortjent hjelp.

This study set out to predict the intention to drink non-sugared mineral water and the performance of this behavior in a group of Norwegian adolescents using the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior. The empirical data stem from The Norwegian Longitudinal Health Behavior Study, and a comprehensive questionnaire survey was performed in September and October 1992. The study group comprised 970, 15-yr-old adolescents, considered to be representative of this age group in the county of Hordaland. After a 4-week period actual behavior was assessed in a subgroup (n=170). The theories posit that a person will probably perform a behavior if she/he intends to perform the behavior and has actual control with its performance. Behavioral intention is in turn governed by three types of predictors: attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control. Multiple regression analysis showed that the intention to drink non-sugared mineral water was primarily governed by perceived behavioral control and attitudes while subjective norms had less impact. Intention alone turned out to be the immediate determinant of drinking of non-sugared mineral water, which implies that performance of this behavior presents few problems regarding actual control.

The purpose of this study was to investigate which factors predicted the intention to eat healthier food. The empirical data stem from a questionnaire survey carried out among 527 young adults aged 23-26 years living in Oslo, Norway. The study was carried out in September 1991. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) was used as a guiding theoretical framework. The components of the TPB accounted for 32% of the variance in behavioral intention. Attitude was the strongest predictor, followed by perceived behavioral control. Subjective norm received the lowest weight A detailed analysis of the underlying cognitive structures revealed that the outcomes which discriminated most strongly between those who intended to eat healthier food, those who were undecided and those who had no intention, were that healthier food would improve the shape of the body, increase enjoyment of food and reduce weight In addition, the control beliefs 'weight', 'able to make healthier dishes', 'social eating' and 'busy' discriminated mostly between the three intender groups. These outcomes might preferably be addressed in persuasive communications to change intentions to eat healthier food.

Norway has one of the most comprehensive infrastructures for tobacco control in the world and has launched several media campaigns recent years. Can yet another anti-smoking campaign, using fear appeal messages, have an immediate impact on smoking behavior, motivation to quit and health beliefs? A sample of smokers (N = 2543) completed a survey before and after a 7-week national media campaign. Individual exposure to campaign (unaided recall) was used as predictor of change. We observed no statistically significant effect on smoking status but tendencies were in the expected direction for daily smokers (P = 0.09). There were no effects on number of cigarettes per day, likelihood to quit or reduce smoking. Small but statistically significant effects were found on motivation to quit (P < 0.01, ηp2 = 0.004) and perceived seriousness of health hazards (P < 0.05, ηp2 = 0.002). In addition, there was an increase in interpersonal discussions about health and smoking for those exposed to the campaign (P < 0.01, ηp2 = 0.008). We conclude that there are very small effects of a relatively short and intense mass media campaign on a population of smokers already exposed to one of the most comprehensive tobacco control programs in the world. Helsedirektorat sin anti-røykekampanje i 2012 har truleg hatt ein liten positiv effekt på oppfatning av helserisikoen ved røyking og motivasjon til å slutte å røyke. Men berre kanskje ein effekt på røykeåtferd. I alle tilfelle er effektane av kampanjen svært små. Sjølv om SIRUS fann ein liten positiv effekt på nokre av kampanjemåla, fann instituttet ingen endring på andre mål. Det er i utgangspunktet vanskeleg å måle effekten av slike landsomfattande kampanjar, så instituttet kan ikkje vere heilt sikre på at dei små effektane vi fann skuldast sjølve kampanjen eller andre faktorar. Reklamekampanjen frå Helsedirektoratet vart vist på tv, internett og i aviser i byrjinga av 2012 og brukte frykt som hovudverkemiddel. Målet var ein direkte innverknad på røykeåtferd, motivasjon til å slutte og helseoppfatningar. I overkant av 2500 røykjarar deltok i studien, der dei like før og like etter den sju veker lange kampanjeperioden fylte ut eit spørjeskjema på internett. Deltakarane vart delte inn i to grupper: dei som hugsa å ha sett reklamen, og dei som ikkje hugsa den. Kampanjen gav inga klar endring i røykestatusen, men tendensen gjekk i riktig retning. Blant dei som hadde sett reklamen, var det også ein auke i oppfatninga av dei potensielle helsefarane ved røyking. Dette gjaldt ikkje for dei som ikkje hadde sett reklamen

The purpose of the study was to test a prehypothesized structural equation model of predictors of attitudes towards restrictive AIDS policies. It was assumed that such attitudes are under influence of both cognitive processes and more general attitudinal structures. The hypothesized model was tested against empirical data from a nation-wide survey of Norwegian adults, including 543 males and 577 females. The proposed model fit the data reasonably well. As expressed by total effect education was the most important predictor of AIDS policy attitudes. However, the most notable finding appeared to be the strong direct effect exerted by attitudes towards minorities. Misinformation about AIDS transmission and sexual attitudes also exerted significant direct effects upon AIDS policy attitudes. The results clearly demonstrate that AIDS policy attitudes are not cognitively based alone but also reflect more general attitudinal structures. Thus choosing a strategy which is primarily based on increasing the flow of factual AIDS information in order to remedy casual contact beliefs, will not be sufficient to prevent stigmatized and negative AIDS attitudes. This is more evident in that beliefs about modes of AIDS transmission, as reported in this study, seem themselves to have a symbolic component. A perspective which includes the idea of the value expressive fuctions of AIDS related attitudes seem relevant. Consequently, educational strategies which directly address prejudiced attitudes towards minority groups may prove particularly appropriate in the prevention of stigmatized and restrictive AIDS attitudes.

This study examined the predictive value of impulsivity for starting and quitting smoking and whether education had an independent effect on smoking careers or moderated the impulsivity-smoking association.Two waves of the cohort study Young in Norway were used in the present study (third wave: 1999, age range: 19-32 years; fourth wave: 2005, age range: 25-38 years). Postal questionnaires were used for data collection. Subjects participating in 1999 and 2005 were eligible (N = 2,562). Stable smokers (daily smokers in 1999 and 2005) and nonsmokers (never smokers in 1999 and 2005), quitters (daily smokers in 1999, nonsmokers in 2005), and starters (never smokers in 1999, daily smokers in 2005) constituted the analytical sample (1,776 men and women). The associations between self-reported impulsivity and education and smoking were investigated using logistic regression analyses.The odds ratio (OR) for a 1-unit increase in the impulsivity score was 2.16 (95% CI [1.09, 4.30]) for smoking initiation, whereas the OR [95% CI] for low compared with high education was 2.55 (95% CI [1.36, 4.77]). Education, but not impulsivity, emerged as a significant determinant for smoking cessation compared with continued smoking. The OR for quitting smoking by low compared with high education was 0.61 (95% CI [0.42, 0.90]). Mutual adjustment for education and impulsivity did not change any of the results. The interaction term between impulsivity and education was not significantly related to smoking.Because impulsivity emerged as important for smoking initiation regardless of educational level, it should be considered when planning and implementing smoking prevention programs for both low and high socioeconomic groups.

In this study, the Theory of Reasoned Action was applied for two different purposes: (i) to explain and predict seat-belt usage among young adolescents, and (ii) to investigate the specific cognitions underlying the decision to use seat belts. A detailed analysis of these cognitions may provide clues as to which beliefs one should try to change in order to improve seat-belt usage among young adolescents. The decision to wear seat belts was under attitudinal control in the front seat, while it was under both attitudinal and normative control in the back seat. However, prior use of seat belts was the single most powerful predictor of intention. There was a striking consistency in the difference between high intenders and low intenders with regard to the specific underlying cognitions. The most promising 'messages' for persuasive communication appears to be that use of seat belts has an injury reducing effect and makes one feel safe when driving.

This article sets out to study the dimensionality of adolescents' knowledge of HIV transmission by contrasting a two-factor and a one-factor model using confirmatory factor analysis (LISREL). The empirical data stem from a longitudinal study on health behaviour in Norway. This study uses cross-sectional data of the same subjects in 1990 with mean age 13.3 ( n = 927) and 1992 ( n = 974). The respondents were confronted with 12 items describing different types of risky situations and asked whether HIV could be transmitted in these situations. The two-factor model provided a significantly better fit to the empirical data than did the one-factor model, suggesting that knowledge of how HIV is transmitted is distinct from knowledge of how HIV is not transmitted. Several explanations for this difference are suggested, and implications for constructing health- education messages are discussed.