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This article examines the strategic choices of countries regarding their acquisition of defense equipment, given the strategic and economic constraints that they have faced since the end of the Cold War. As Augustine’s laws make it increasingly complicated to develop and produce all the necessary weapons for a single country, countries must balance the wishful thinking of preserving industrial strategic autonomy and the cost of doing so under the constraint of meeting the needs of their armed forces. We discuss a trilemma of the European countries between independence, manageable costs, and economic spinoff. We analyze several procurement alternatives, including national production, European cooperative production, licensed production, off-the-shelf purchase, leasing, and capacity abandonment. Maximizing both strategic and economic advantages, is a myth. There is no “silver bullet” in terms of acquisition choice, and the returns on investment depend on countries’ preferences, goals, and markets.

This paper examines the main determinants of French defense spending over the period 1958–2017. To estimate the determinants of defense spending, the demand defense literature considers both econom...

International audience

Les nouvelles technologies comme les imprimantes 3D ou les objets connectes peuvent desormais contribuer a la politique de soutien des equipements, en apportant des solutions innovantes. L’industrie 4.0 offre ainsi des perspectives dans un secteur en pleine mutation meme si certaines contraintes demeurent.

Les pays de l’UE forment-ils une alliance militaire optimale, dans laquelle le fardeau de la securite serait equitablement partage ? Pour repondre a cette question, cet article reprend les travaux de la theorie des alliances qui vise a comparer les benefices attendus aux couts supportes. L’originalite consiste a examiner ces couts sous divers angles : en plus de la dimension budgetaire, nous retenons les dimensions d’innovation (budget de R&D), capacitaires (budget d’equipement) et operationnelles (projection de forces). Ce travail empirique s’appuie sur une base de donnees de l’Agence europeenne de defense (AED), sur la periode 2005-2014. Les resultats montrent que l’UE tend a se comporter comme une alliance sur les dimensions personnel et troupes deployees mais pas sur les depenses de recherche et developpement, d’equipements ni sur les budgets de defense dans leur globalite.

Penser une defense europeenne oblige a reflechir a la nature des differentes menaces et a leur interaction pour les pays concernes. De fait, les perceptions sont diverses et les consequences en besoin de defense ne sont pas les memes. Le risque est de voir certains Etats s’investir reellement tandis que d’autres restent reticents a assumer cette responsabilite.

La carte militaire de la France a subi de profondes mutations avec la diminution du nombre d’unites et donc d’implantations territoriales. Les compensations fournies en partie par les industries de defense n’ont pas ete negligeables et jouent un role structurant dans l’amenagement et l’economie de certains territoires.

At the intersection between the evaluation of public policies and regional economics, this article assesses thanks to an original database the coherence of the support policy of the French ministry of defense during the major territorial restructuring that occurred in France since the 2000s. Based on data collected at the district level, an econometric analysis links the demographic, economic and political situation of the communities affected by restructuring with the financial compensations they received from the Ministry. The analysis questions the spatial planning logics within the ministry of Defense's rationalization policy. The results show that the socio-economic situation of communities is fairly well integrated into the overall strategy of the public planner. This, allows to feed the debate about the relevance and the effectiveness of this kind of policy when it is undertaken by an actor, whose primary function is not to do spatial planning but to prepare and organize the Defense of the country.

The article focuses on both economics and spatial issues related to Maintenance Repair and Overhaul (MRO) of defence platforms in Europe. Using facts and figures related to costs, trends and fleet sizes evolution, the authors discuss the interest of a spatial reorganisation of MRO production. Given the fiscal situation of the main European countries with a modern army, the relevant scale to consider the reorganisation is certainly Europe. Through the example of defence helicopters fleets of a selection of European countries, the authors address the question of cooperation of the MRO. A greater cooperation in the support of fleets would lead to a spatial reorganisation of MRO. On one side economies can be expected from this reorganisation, but, on the other hand, new problems arise. Specifically, a number of costs associated with different forms of “distances” – geographical, operational and political distances – limit the potential savings that could be expected. This work provides insights on the...

Les depenses de recherche et developpement (RD) constituent un element important du budget de la defense en preparant le long terme. Une etude fine de leur place au sein de la structure budgetaire, etalee sur plusieurs annees, permet de distinguer une certaine coherence entre les ambitions et les decisions.

This paper assesses risks of knowledge leakage associated with training in technology transfers. Today states want to master sovereign technologies. As a consequence, exporting firms have adapted their offers to respond to customers’ requests and provide training in technology transfer contracts. We have recorded the perception of trainers regarding risks of knowledge leakage associated with training activities. Due to different interpretations of technology transfers and related risks, trainers’ assessment of knowledge leakages is not homogeneous in the training process. A typology of trainers and their typical behaviors in professional situations is proposed and leads to recommendations to mitigate knowledge leakages., Cet article évalue les risques de fuite de connaissances associés à la formation dans le cadre des contrats de transfert de technologie. Aujourd’hui, les États veulent maîtriser les technologies souveraines. En conséquence, les entreprises exportatrices ont adapté leurs offres pour répondre aux demandes des clients et donc dispenser une formation. Après avoir recueilli la perception des formateurs engagés dans ces contrats, une typologie des formateurs et de leurs comportements typiques dans les différentes situations professionnelles est proposée. Le tout conduit à des recommandations pour atténuer les fuites de connaissances., Este artículo evalúa los riesgos de la fuga de conocimientos asociados a la formación en los casos de transferencia de tecnología. Actualmente, los Estados desean controlar las tecnologías de soberanía. Como consecuencia, las empresas exportadoras proponen una formación en sus contratos de transferencia de tecnología. Al tomar en cuenta la percepción de los profesores que son confrontados a estas situaciones, hemos observado un riesgo importante de fuga de conocimiento. Por ello, proponemos una tipología de profesores y de sus comportamientos típicos en situación profesional, seguido de recomendaciones para disminuir dichas fugas y tener un mejor control de los conocimientos vendidos.

A la lumiere des demarches technopolitaines au Maghreb, cet article pose la question de l’experience technopolitaine algerienne. Les travaux existants montrent un certain retard de l’Algerie dans cette demarche par rapport a d’autres pays de l’espace mediterraneen. Ce retard est en passe d’etre comble si l’on en croit l’ambitieuse politique des « poles d’excellence » initiee par les pouvoirs publics. Le cas du technopole de Sidi-Abdellah est illustratif des ambitions d’une telle politique technologique. En partant de la presentation du contexte technopolitain au Maghreb et de sa mise en œuvre sur le site de Sidi‑Abdellah, on discute des perspectives qui en decoulent pour la diaspora algerienne. En particulier, on s’interesse au regard de ces expatries de haut niveau sur des opportunites professionnelles qui les concernent potentiellement. Ce role de la diaspora peut s’exercer par deux canaux : le retour au pays des cadres expatries et les reseaux pour lesquels les poles technologiques pourraient devenir des points d’ancrage territoriaux dans une economie de la connaissance globalisee.

International audience; This article discusses the European military helicopter market. It first recalls historical antecedents in the structural development of the main helicopter programs that helped to consolidate the industry and then reviews the industry’s current major trends. A paradoxical situation is identified: While European countries presently are able to cope with both, the growing needs in helicopter capabilities and the maintenance of ageing fleets, no large helicopter programs for the future have been launched. Some uncertainties regarding how future helicopter procurement will be organized are identified. The current situation underlines the challenges that European states will face to maintain both industrial skills in the industry and sovereignty in military helicopter capabilities. A number of industry options are discussed: more exports, more cooperation, more dual use, and more reliance on support and service sales.

In the context of restricted budgetary resources and the growing cost of maintenance, repair, and overhaul (MRO) activities, a major issue for modern armed forces is to sustain defense platforms. A possible method consists of realizing economies of scale through the concentration of maintenance activities, which involves the spatial reorganization of existing industrial sites dedicated to MRO. This article provides a formalized framework to discuss the optimal organization for the MRO of defense platforms in space. The public planner organizes the maintenance of defense platforms with only two possible spatial configurations. In the dispersed configuration, two industrial production units in charge of the maintenance optimally cover space, whereas in the concentrated configuration, a unique industrial unit covers space. Focusing on the tipping point between the two configurations, the balance of forces between agglomeration and dispersion in defense support activities is described and discussed. O...

Resume La France est engagee dans de nombreuses operations exterieures dont le cout s'eleve a plus d'un milliard d'euros par an depuis presque dix ans. L'examen des « surcouts des OPEX » illustre les nouvelles modalites d'intervention. L'objet de cette contribution est d'examiner, sous l'angle economique, le cout operationnel supporte par les armees. Il s'agit d'un cout difficile a apprehender car il n'a pas de valeur economique par essence, de sorte que l'on est oblige de recourir a des analyses indirectes, via les consequences sur les hommes et les materiels. On montre que, depuis 2010, de graves defaillances apparaissent et peuvent, a terme, conduire a reduire le potentiel militaire de la France. Plusieurs pistes d'amelioration sont discutees en conclusion.

International audience; This chapter discusses the ongoing transformations of the French defence support. Considering the importance of economic activities related to defence support, this contribution aims at discussing the evolution of defence support and its costs for the State. The literature in defence economics presents very little analysis of defence support in its different forms. Neither space nor base locations have been deeply analysed in such a literature. We try to bridge this gap in an original research framework. We focus on the Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul (MRO) of defence platforms. More particularly, we focus on the array of measures that surround French defence support in MRO since the end of the 1990s. Considering both economic and spatial leverages, how can the organisation of MRO be optimised? With concepts from spatial economics, we propose a new look on the defence support system. We examine new economic interconnections (e.g. Public Private Partnerships and outsourcing) between military and civilian activities. More broadly speaking, this path of research could help us to better understand the new type of economic interrelations between defence organisation and 'territory' as a social fabric.

National audience; In the main arms-producing ‎countries, Ministries of Defence are looking for alternative ways to acquire defence capabilities. Over the past two decades, several reform projects have been experimented to go beyond the model inherited from the Cold War, but they did not succeed in delivering expected results. One may wonder whether such defence acquisition systems correspond to their core mission: supplying boots on the ground with adequate capacities. The research agenda and reforms programmes are biased since they focus mainly on "how" to procure. While reforming existing mechanisms seems to fail or to deliver well below expectations, one may wonder in fact whether the true question should concern "why" and "what" to buy with regard to military needs but also the place that technology takes in conceiving defence capabilities.

International audience; This paper presents an overall economic perspective of the main trends at work in the geographic pattern of the national defense in France. The framework assumes a public planner aiming to maximize the social utility of defense under a dual constraint: financial constraint and geographic constraint with an historical legacy. Through an analysis of current changes in the defense organization, we stress a play of forces between geographic concentration and geographic dispersion. On the one side, the current trends in defense organization show an economic rationalization that modifies the geographic pattern with waves of geographic concentration. On the other side, the dispersed spatial configuration of defense, legacy of several centuries of history, exercises all its influence on the current restructuring of defense. Such play of forces can be examined in the light of "decreasing cost" concept. In the framework of the "decreasing cost" concept, the paper proposes an overview of both social and regional costs caused by the rationalization process of defense.; Cet article propose une mise en perspective économique des principales tendances observées dans l'organisation géographique de la défense nationale en France. On considère un décideur public cherchant à maximiser l'utilité collective des armées sous une double contrainte : une contrainte financière et une contrainte géographique héritée de l'Histoire. On identifie un jeu de forces entre concentration et dispersion géographique. D'un côté, les tendances récentes dans l'organisation des armées montrent une logique de rationalisation économique et de concentration géographique. D'un autre côté, la configuration spatiale dispersée de la défense, héritage de plusieurs siècles d'Histoire, pèse de tout son poids dans les restructurations. Ce jeu de forces peut être éclairé par le concept de " coût de régression ". L'article propose alors un aperçu général des coûts sociaux et territoriaux associés à la rationalisation de la défense en utilisant le concept de " coût de régression " comme grille de lecture.

International audience; Defense support is defined as all the means contributing to the readiness of military forces. The literature in defense economics presents very little analysis of defense support in its different forms. Neither space nor base locations have been deeply analyzed in that literature. This paper aims to bridge this gap by discussing and defining preliminary steps of a research agenda in order to connect defense and spatial economics in the case of defense support activities. This contribution discusses the on-going transformations and especially technological changes in the MRO (Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul) of defense systems in the French army. With concepts from spatial economics, this paper aims at examining the geographic pattern of the defense system and new types of economic interconnections (e.g. outsourcing, Public Private Partnerships and "productive duality") between military and civilian activities. This paper aims to answer to the following questions: What are the main trends in the evolution of defense support for modern defense platforms that embody increasing technology? What are the consequences of such trends for the defense system as a whole? Finally, considering both economic and spatial organizational innovations, how can the defense support system be optimized?

International audience; Offsets policy in sovereign technologies has evolved with the changing needs of States in terms of production and technology. Today States not only want to acquire complex systems such as weapons, transportation systems or energy system, they also want to produce them domestically and to master related technology. In past years, in offsets literature, technology transfers were considered as subproducts of defence systems negotiated in contracts. Today, technology transfers can be seen as a complete and strategic product that States want to achieve technological leaps to become more independent regarding maintenance and retrofit processes in the whole life-cycle of systems. As a consequence, the industry is adapting both its organization and supply chain to respond to market trends, especially with the integration of training in technology transfers contracts.This paper aims at assessing risks associated with training issues in technology transfers in the case of sovereign technologies. What is at stake for both States and firms that are involved in technology transfers? What is the potential loss of knowledge in the practice of training activity in technology transfers? Regarding this loss of knowledge, what are the riskiest channels in the training process for firms? What kind of strategies can firms develop to cope with the loss of knowledge? How to manage training in technology transfers?Our qualitative method is based on interviews with trainers involved in technology transfers in a panel of strategic French firms (energy, defence, transport). We conducted around 40 interviews in order to catch the perception of trainers regarding the risks associated with their activity and built a typology of “risky situations” where information and knowledge were not well controlled by firms. Our results show that firms involved in technology transfers should focus more on ex post stages of technology transfers contracts in order to master knowledge or at least reduce leaks of knowledge. We finally suggest some recommendations to firms to improve the management of training in a context of technology transfers.