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Publisher Summary Behavior analytic approaches to sexual disorders have as their bases the relationships among habituation, classical and operant conditioning, and overt sexual behavior. Learning-based accounts of sexual behavior focus on the importance of both conditioning and habituation of sexual arousal. Further, theories of human behavior which are not explicitly based on the principles of learning also rely on the assumption that, at least to some extent, sexual behavior and arousal are learned. In order to understand the importance of behavior analysis, empirical research should demonstrate that the principles of learning and behavior are involved in sexual behavior.. Functional assessment of sexual disorders should identify the possible respondent and operant mechanisms that may lie behind problematic sexual behavior in order to identify alternate appropriate, satisfying forms of sexual behavior that service the same function as the problematic sexual behavior. Additionally, therapists should identify appropriate forms of sexual behavior, either in the client's current or past behavioral repertoire, as well as appropriate forms of sexual expression that are presently not in the client's repertoire.

Penile plethysmography (PPG) continues to be a frequently utilized tool in both the assessment and treatment of sexual offenders. As a primary method to measure a male’s current pattern of sexual arousal, PPG also has relevance more recently to sexually violent predator evaluations in that sexual deviance has repeatedly been shown to be a risk factor in the prediction of sexual recidivism. The PPG is also routinely used an adjunct to cognitive-behavioral sexual offender treatment after men are civilly committed under sexually violent predator statutes. The use of PPG in this particular context has broadened the questions and concerns about the ethical, reliable, and valid use of PPG in assessment and treatment decision-making. Further, it is an open question as to how professional evaluators in sexually violent predator cases utilize PPG data as part of their risk evaluations and ultimate recommendations. This chapter will survey the use and potential misuse of PPG data to guide clinical decision-making in sexually violent predator cases.

The debate between mentalism/cognitivism and behaviorism is analyzed, and it is concluded that behaviorism is the philosophy more closely associated with psychology as a behavioral science, the cognitive approach being more closely aligned with biological science. Specific objections to mentalistic interpretations of behavioral phenomena are detailed, and examples from clinical psychology are used to show the importance of behavioral approaches in applied domains. It is argued that the relation between behavior theory and clinical psychology is critical to the continued advancement of applied psychology. Behavior analysis is offered as a direct, applied extension of behavior theory as well as a highly practical and effective approach for understanding, explaining, and modifying the factors that contribute to and maintain maladaptive behaviors.

The purpose of the present study was to begin the process of establishing psychometric soundness of the reduced Horne and Ostberg questionnaire (rH&O, Adan & Almirall (1991) . Horne and Ostberg morningness–eveningness questionnaire: a reduced scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 12 , 241–253.). In the first stage of the study a total of 1882 students from the University of North Dakota were administered the original H&O questionnaire ( Horne & Ostberg (1976) . A self- assessment questionnaire to determine morningness–eveningness in human circadian rhythms. International Journal of Chronobiology, 4 , 97–110. 19-items). Five items that constitute the rH&O were extracted from the original 19 items questionnaire and the relationship between the total scores of both questionnaires, and between the circadian types determined by H&O and rH&O was measured by computing appropriate correlation coefficients. In the second stage of the study the original H&O questionnaire and the rH&O (5-items) questionnaire were administered to another group of college students ( n =150). The results from both parts of the present study indicate that the rH&O has adequate inter-item correlations as well as high coefficient alpha. Furthermore, the rH&O questionnaire is sufficiently sensitive with respect to the results of the original H&O questionnaire and it reliably classifies research participants across the “morningness–eveningness” dimension. Working with the rH&O could save both the researchers and the participants time and effort, especially if large samples of populations are to be studied. Conclusions and limitations are discussed as well as the directions for future studies.

The purpose of this study was to compare the metabolic and physiologic responses to sub‐maximal exercise on land and in water with and without 0.90 kg (2.0 pounds) hand‐held weights in young women. Eight apparently healthy women (mean ± SD for age: 19.8 ± 1.6 years; height: 164.1 ± 8.4 cm; weight: 64.8 ±8.6) completed a maximal graded exercise test (GXT) and four submaximal exercise tests: (1) on land with hand‐held weights; (2) on land without hand‐held weights; (3) in neck‐depth water with hand‐held weights and (4) in neck‐depth water without hand‐held weights. Analysis of heart rate (HR), oxygen consumption (Vo2), ventilation (V E ), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), blood lactate [LA‐] and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) respectively was conducted in all tests. A 2 x 2 (environment x weights) analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated there was a significantly lower HR and Vo2 subject response to water exercise than to land exercise of the same type. The addition of hand‐held weights to the exercise lo...

The primary research question was whether older adults respond to the contingencies of reinforcement such that they allocate their behavior as predicted by the reinforcement contingencies and discriminative stimuli programmed by the experimenters. Six subjects, ranging in age from 62 to 74 years, participated in 15 experimental sessions. Subjects were instructed to press the “F1” key when they saw a white circle, and to press the “F12” key when they saw a red letter “A.” Responses on the F1 key were reinforced on a variable interval (VI) 30-s schedule (i.e., a VI schedule of reinforcement with 11 arithmetically spaced intervals with a mean of 30 s); F12 key responses were reinforced on a VI 60-s schedule (i.e., a VI schedule of reinforcement with 11 arithmetically spaced intervals with a mean of 60 s). Reinforcers included monetary units (10 cents) and verbal praise. Results indicated positive effects of stimulus control of behavior. Collective false alarms and miss rates represented only 0.05% of the total responses. Also, two thirds of the subjects allocated behavior consistent with the second hypothesis that a denser reinforcement schedule (i.e., the VI 30-s) would cause subjects to respond more quickly to this condition. Implications of the present results for clinical studies of Alzheimer's Disease and dementia, as well as behavior modification strategies with aging individuals, are discussed.

The volunteer biases present in psychophysiological studies of sexual arousal were investigated in two geographically distinct sites. Four hundred eighty‐five male and female undergraduates at the University of North Dakota and Oklahoma State University completed a packet of questionnaires which included demographics and personality‐ and sexuality‐related measures. Participants were then given an opportunity to participate in a sexual arousal study, for which 74 individuals volunteered. Significant differences were found between males and females on sexual guilt, and between volunteers and nonvol‐unteers on four out of five measures. In addition, analyses of the reasons nonvolunteers provided for not participating suggest that the types of measurement and stimuli often influence what types of individuals volunteer for such research. These results have serious implications for the generalizability of such physiological arousal measures, and indicate a need for the development of less intrusive measures of ...

The respondent (classical) conditioning of male sexual arousal was investigated, employing penile plethysmography and 2 control procedures. Nine participants participated in three sessions, for three consecutive weeks. Each session consisted of fifteen stimulus periods and fifteen detumescence periods. Three participants participated in each of three different experimental conditioning procedures. Sexually explicit visual stimuli preselected by each participant were utilized as the unconditioned stimuli (US), and a neutral slide of a penny jarwas employed as the conditioned stimulus (CS). In the first procedure, short delay conditioning, the CS was presented for 15 seconds, followed immediately by the US for 30 seconds. The second procedure was a backward conditioning procedure. In the third procedure, a random control condition, the presentation of CS and US was determined randomly. Results indicated that participants showed systematic maximum increases in penile tumescence from baseline in the short delay conditioning procedure, but not in the other two control procedures. Implications of these results to behavior therapy strategies which are based upon the conditioning of human sexual arousal are examined and discussed.

Advances in areas of behavior analysis are discussed to show the relevance of experimental science to behavior therapy. It is concluded that there are many areas of mutual interest between experimental operant psychologists and behavior therapists that may serve to enhance the clinical efficacy and range of behavior problems addressed by behavior therapists. Specific examination is given to areas of experimental behavior analysis such as reinforcement, including schedules of reinforcement; the matching law; advanced issues in stimulus control; the interaction between operant and classical conditioning; behavioral momentum; rule-governed behavior; and stimulus equivalence. The argument that behavior therapists are not knowledgeable about behavior analysis is disputed, and it is concluded that behavior therapists are in a unique position to be the practice professionals best able to utilize the principles of learning and behavior analysis in the service of adaptive behavior change.

Stimulus equivalence is a behavioral approach to analyzing the "meaning" of stimulus sets and has an implication for clinical psychology. The formation of three-member (A --> B --> C) stimulus equivalence classes was used to investigate the effects of three different sets of sample and comparison stimuli on emergent behavior. The three stimulus sets were composed of Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)-related words, non-REBT emotionally charged words, and a third category of neutral words composed of flower labels. Sixty-two women and men participated in a modified matching-to-sample experiment. Using a mixed cross-over design, and controlling for serial order effects, participants received conditional training and emergent relationship training in the three stimulus set conditions. Results revealed a significant interaction between the formation of stimulus equivalence classes and stimulus meaning, indicating consistently biased responding in favor of reaching criterion responding more slowly for REBT-related and non-REBT emotionally charged words. Results were examined in the context of an analysis of the importance of stimulus meaning on behavior and the relation of stimulus meaning to behavioral and cognitive theories, with special appraisal given to the influence of fear-related discriminative stimuli on behavior.

Stimulus equivalence is a behavioral approach to the analysis of the “meaning” of stimulus sets. The formation of three-member (A→B→C) stimulus equivalence classes was used to investigate the effects of three different sets of sample and comparison stimuli on emergent behavior. The three stimulus sets were composed of sexually explicit words, sexually ambiguous words, and a third category of neutral words. Forty-one female and male subjects participated in a modified matching-to-sample experiment. Using a mixed crossover design, subjects received training and emergent relationship training in the three stimulus set conditions, controlling for serial order effects. Results revealed a significant interaction between the formation of stimulus equivalence classes and stimulus “meaning,” indicative of consistently biased responding in favor of reaching criterion responding more slowly for the sexually explicit words. Results were examined in the context of an analysis of the importance of stimulus “meaning” on behavior, and the relation of stimulus “meaning” to behavioral and cognitive theories, with special appraisal given to the influence of sexually related discriminative stimuli on behavior.

With the central thesis that any tool used in the treatment and management of juvenile sex offenders must be used optimally, we offer a broad review of the polygraph instrument and its application with juveniles. Part 1 describes the 90-year history of the polygraph and its use with juveniles. Part 2 reviews special considerations for using the polygraph with juveniles and addresses frequently asked questions. Part 3 describes the fundamentals of psychophysiology and current methodology, including interviewing, question formulation, validated techniques, deception criteria, and test data analysis. Finally, Part 4 describes actual scenarios of the polygraph with juveniles, including confirmatory testing of alleged victims, testing of alleged aggressors, and testing during the assessment and management of adjudicated juvenile sex offenders.

Behavior principles are naturally implicated in most of the behavior therapy techniques used in the treatment of sexual dysfunctions and sexual disorders. Hypotheses differ, however, in the extent to which behavior therapy procedures emphasize the classical conditioning of sexual arousal (e.g. penile responses) or the operant conditioning of deviant sexual behavior patterns, or other often ignored behavior principles such as habituation. The purpose of the present case study is to investigate the possibility that at least part of the clinical effects of a widely used behavior therapy technique for sexual deviations, covert sensitization, may directly involve habituation processes. Results of the assisted covert sensitization case study indicate that, while expected decrements in sexual arousal to sexually inappropriate stimuli were observed, decrements in sexual arousal and self-report were also observed for sexually appropriate stimuli which received no aversive consequences, only repeated stimulus presentation over time. It is argued that habituation processes need further empirical investigation as a potential behavioral mechanism in the beneficial clinical effects usually noted in covert sensitization procedures.

In the present study, the ‘eveningness-morningness’ dimension, as measured by the Horne and Ostberg (H&O) questionnaire, was examined in a college student population totalling over 1600 undergraduates. The majority of students were found to be evening types (62.4%), and 29.3% were neither type. Very few students were morning types (8.3%), and most of these individuals were significantly older than the students who were classified in the other two types. This is a first large-scale study showing the distribution of the H&O scores in a sample of young adult college students. Also, this study is the first report of significance found between the H&O typology (i.e. an evening and morning type) and gender. Female participants showed significantly stronger tendency toward the morningness dimension (χ2 = 7.05, P

Analysis was given to cognitive and behavioral assessment of fear-related responding. Stimulus equivalence was offered as a new approach to the analysis of the “meaning” of stimulus sets. The formation of three-member (A → B → C) stimulus equivalence classes was used to investigate the effects of two different sets of sample and comparison stimuli on emergent behavior. The two sets were composed of snake-related stimuli (Condition 1) and flower-related stimuli (Condition 2). Stimuli in these two conditions were matched on a number of relevant dimensions. Forty-seven female and male subjects participated in a modified matching-to-sample experiment. Using a mixed cross-over design, subjects received training and emergent relationship training in both stimulus set conditions, controlling for serial order effects. Results revealed a significant interaction between the formation of stimulus equivalence classes and stimulus “meaning”, indicative of consistently biased responding in favor of reaching cr...

Behavioral momentum, which can be defined as the persistence of behavior under altered environmental contingencies, is derived from Newtonian physics and operant psychology, and has relevance to behavior therapy in terms of shaping strong behaviors and ensuring effective relapse prevention strategies. The present study investigated whether changing operant schedule contingencies affects how humans respond to different stimuli when reinforcement density is systematically manipulated. Fifteen subjects participated in a computer study, in which each of two keys in a baseline condition was associated with the same schedule of reinforcement, multiple variable interval schedules, the only difference being that one reinforcer was ten times larger than the other. After six sessions, the contingency schedule changed to either an extinction condition, a variable time schedule, or a changed variable interval schedule to assess how 'subjects' responses persisted when reinforcement contingencies were systematically changed. Results of this study were found to be consistent with the general predictions of behavioral momentum. Subjects not only biased responding in favor of the more densely reinforcing key, but when contingencies changed, subjects showed continued biased responding. Implications for behavioral momentum for behavior modification and behavior therapy are discussed, and it is concluded that behavioral momentum has significant implications for designing new and comprehensive behavior change programs.

The foundation, accomplishments, and proliferation of behavior therapy have been fueled largely by the movement's grounding in behavioral principles and theories. Ivan P. Pavlov's discovery of conditioning principles was essential to the founding of behavior therapy in the 1950s and continues to be central to modern behavior therapy. Pavlov's major legacy to behavior therapy was his discovery of "experimental neuroses", shown by his students M.N. Erofeeva and N.R. Shenger-Krestovnikova to be produced and eliminated through the principles of conditioning and counterconditioning. In this article, the Pavlovian origins of behavior therapy are assessed, and the relevance of conditioning principles to modern behavior therapy are analyzed. It is shown that Pavlovian conditioning represents far more than a systematic basic learning paradigm. It is also an essential theoretical foundation for the theory and practice of behavior therapy.

The relationship between the 4 subscales (Checking, Cleaning, Doubting, Slowness) and total score of the Maudsley Obsessional-Compulsive Inventory (MOCI) and performance in a negative-priming task and a response-speed task in 102 undergraduates was examined. Only Cleaning subscale performance correlated with magnitude of negative priming. Performance on the Checking, Slowing, and Doubting subscales was not significantly related to the magnitude of negative priming. The not significant correlation between Checking score and negative priming magnitude supports the findings of Maki, O'Neill, and O'Neill (1994), who observed that compulsive checking (of, e.g., whether the stove is turned off) appeared to be unrelated to deficiencies in inhibitory control. The present results are not, however, consistent with the view that obsessive-compulsive characteristics (as measured by the MOCI) result in a disruption in and a reduction of inhibitory control (Enright & Beech, 1993).

Short-term and long-term habituation of sexual arousal was investigated in a crossover design. Nine subjects completed six sessions semiweekly for 3 consecutive weeks. Sessions were scheduled at least 2 days but not more than 4 days apart. Each session consisted of 15 stimulus periods and 15 detumescence periods. Sexually explicit audio stimuli were administered. There were two conditions in the crossover design, which allowed each participant to serve as his own control. During one half of the sessions subjects were exposed to 15 different scripts (varied condition); during the remaining sessions subjects were exposed to the same script 45 times (15 trials for each of three sessions, the constant condition). The constant stimulus condition was the experimental habituation condition, whereas the varied stimuli served as a control for physiological fatigue. Scripts were randomly assigned to stimulus conditions. Subjects showed systematic decreases in penile responding within the second and third constant stimulus conditions, but no systematic decreases were noted in any of the varied stimulus conditions. Subjects evidenced significant long-term decreases in physiological responding only in the constant stimulus condition as well as short-term decreases in subjective report of arousal. Long-term habituation of sexual arousal may be related to molar behaviors such as promiscuity and the spread of sexually transmitted diseases, and may be tied to sociobiological accounts of long-term sexual behavior patterns in human males.

The penile plethysmograph is believed by many researchers and clinicians to be the most valid and reliable instrument currently available for assessing male sexual arousal patterns. Stimuli used to elicit sexual arousal in research studies as well as in plethysmographic assessments, however, have varied considerably. We examined the effects of two stimulus characteristics that may greatly influence the measurement of male sexual arousal—the type of sexual behavior depicted and the presence of accompanying audio cues. The sexual arousal of 18 male college students was individually assessed via penile plethysmograph and self‐report while they viewed 60‐second erotic video clips. Each video clip depicted a single sexual behavior; half of the clips were presented with accompanying audio. Separate 2 (sound) x 6 (behavior) x 2 (session) repeated measures ANOVAs revealed significant main effects for sound and behavior for both the physiological and self‐report data, as well as a significant sound x behavior inte...

In this study, we investigated relationships of lifestyle and cultural factors with report of depression among upper midwest American Indians using the Center for Epidemiological Studies—Depression (CES-D) scale as a nonclinical measure of depressive symptomatology. Lifestyle factors included level of alcohol consumption, tobacco use, physical activity, and family medical history. Cultural factors included level of native and nonnative cultural identification and fluency in native language. There were inverse relationships between CES-D score and amount of weekly exercise, academic grade completed, yearly house income, frequency of using traditional medicine or herbs, and ability to speak native language. The present findings indicate that certain demographic and culturally based factors relate to American Indians’ self-reports of depressive mood. With regard to health factors, there was an association between family history of diabetes and greater report of depression. Results of a multivariate principal components analysis on the CES-D revealed a three-factor solution: one dimension having to do with negative affect and interpersonal evaluations, another having to do with cognitive and motoric problems, and a dimension of positive and hopeful affect. The data point to a subset of demographic and cultural factors that may have particular relevance to depressive mood in Northern Plains American Indians.

Although modern behavior therapy has become increasingly cognitive, empirically validated behavior and cognitive behavior therapies continue to be firmly based on modern learning theory. The relation between behavior theory and behavior therapy is critical to the continued advancement of behavior therapy in the modern era of radical changes within the mental health care system. Of particular relevance to the continued success of behavior therapy is behavior analysis. Not only is behavior analysis a direct, applied extension of behavior theory, but it is also a highly practical and effective approach for understanding, explaining, and modifying verbal behavior, behavioral trajectories, and the contextual factors that contribute to, and maintain, maladaptive behaviors.

Research into why people choose not to use condoms despite a growing AIDS epidemic has tapped the attitude that the use of condoms somehow interferes with the progression of the sexual act or lessens sexual pleasure. The current study investigated the effects on male sexual arousal of condom use described in sexually explicit audiotaped narratives. The sexual arousal of 14 male university students was measured physiologically by penile plethysmography and by self-report using a within-subjects design. Subjects listened to 10 audiotaped scripts, half of which included the use of a condom and half of which did not. No significant differences in either physiological or subjective arousal data were found between conditions.It has been speculated that some people who choose not to use condoms in the context of a growing AIDS pandemic do so because condom use interferes with the progression of the sexual act or lessens sexual pleasure. 14 male students in undergraduate psychology courses at the University of North Dakota volunteered to listen to sexually explicit audiotaped narratives in a study of male sexual arousal in the context of condom use. 20 audio scripts based upon 10 sexually explicit scenarios were used in the study. Each approximately two-minute long script depicted sexual interactions culminating in sexual intercourse between an adult male and an adult female. Ten scripts depicted scenarios involving no condom use. Modified versions of these scripts included condom use, thereby comprising the other 10 scenarios. The scripts were recorded on standard audiotapes by an adult female not connected with the study. Each volunteer was placed alone in a room furnished with only a reclining chair, a pair of stereo headphones, and a Likert scale mounted on a wall four feet from the chair. The young men were told how to apply and calibrate the Parks Medical Electronics, Inc. model 240-A mercury-in-rubber strain gauge plethysmograph, a device capable of measuring slight changes in penile circumference. Each subject then alternately heard 10 randomly selected scripts, half involving condom use and half not. Physiological data on penile response while listening to the tapes were collected via Advanced CODAS software and stored individually for each subject on a Gateway computer. Each subject also reported upon his sexual arousal. No significant differences were observed in physiologically and subjectively assessed patterns of male sexual arousal between the condom-present and condom-absent conditions. The brief description of putting on a condom within a sexually explicit audiotaped narrative had neither detrimental nor enhancing effects upon male sexual arousal. That condoms and condom use truly have no effect upon male sexual arousal is, however, only one of many possible explanations for these findings.

Recent behavioral studies have addressed the persistence of behavior under altered environmental conditions using more sophisticated techniques of behavior analysis which have direct relevance for applied behavior analysis and therapy. In clinical populations, for example, behavioral programs are concerned with issues such as generalizability of behavior and relapse prevention (Epstein, 1992). Free-operant behavior can be analyzed not only in terms of its response rate but also in terms of its persistence under changed environmental constraints. The aggregation of these two response measures, rate and persistence, has been termed behavioral momentum (Nevin, Mandell, & Atak, 1983). This study assessed behavioral momentum in a human population in order to test predictions made from the behavioral model and potential clinical applications of behavioral momentum to behavior analysis and therapy. Eight undergraduates served as subjects for this study. Results were consistent with the predictions based on behavioral momentum. Denser reinforcement schedules, regardless of response contingency, produced greater resistance to the implementation of changed contingency schedules. Results of this study may have direct application to behavior analysis programs. If humans, in clinical contexts, show similar patterns of persistence in behavior under changed environmental settings, schedules could be implemented that provide both contingent and non-contingent reinforcement, thereby strengthening behavior to give it greater generalizability outside of the immediate situation.

The experimental analysis of verbal and rule-govemed behavior is one area that potentially has much relevance to applied clinical settings, including the assessment and treatment of pedophilia. Much of the interaction between therapists and clients takes place in a verbal context. Since the publication of Skinner's Verbal Behavior in 1957, however, not much systematic clinical research conceming verbal behavior has been integrated into clinical practice, partly evidenced in the past several years by the many cognitive theories proclaiming to some extent that "mental way stations" explain the causes of behavior. This paper analyzes the fundamental aspects of rule-governed behavior, summarizes current research in this area, and explores some of the research methods and issues involved with rule-governed behavior. In addition, the potential of this area of behavioral psychology to provide important alternatives to explanations offered by cognitive psychology is also explored. Implications for the scientific use of rule govemed behavior in conducting psychological assessments with pedophiles is also examined.

Investigation was given to the effects of two different types of stimuli on the formation of three-member (A→B→C) stimulus equivalence classes. In Condition 1, snake-related stimuli were tested; and in Condition 2 flower-related stimuli were examined. Stimuli in the two sets were matched in terms of the number of letters in each stimulus, letter placement, and word frequency. Fifty-one female subjects participated in a stimulus equivalence modified matching-to-sample training format adapted from Fields, Adams, Verhave, and Newman (1990). Using a crossover design that controlled for serial order effects, subjects received conditional discrimination training and emergent relations testing with both stimulus sets. Results revealed significant interaction between the formation of stimulus equivalence classes and stimulus sets. Stimulus set consistent test performances were achieved more slowly for stimuli composed of fear-relevant stimuli.

It has been argued that clinical psychologists, including clinical behavior therapists, are not aware of or knowledge about advances being made in basic behavioral research (Marks, Behavioral Psychotherapy), 9, 137–154, 1981). The present paper addresses the arguments advanced by clinical and experimental psychologists that behavior therapy and cognitve–behavior therapy are moving away from their respective ties to the experimental operant laboratory. It is argued that there are many areas of mutual interest between basic behavioral and clinical research and application. Several major research programs of operant psychology are analyzed in order to demonstrate conclusively that advances in basic behavioral studies have relevance for application by clinical psychologists. Progress in the experimental fields of the quantitative law of effect (the matching law), operant/classical interactions, including behavioral momentum, modeling and verbal and rule-governed behavior are analyzed. Applications of these basic behavioral principles to clinical settings are also illustrated. It is concluded that the experimental analysis of behavior can add much to the continuing development of a scientifically-based clinical psychology, and that mutual interest research on both sub-disciplines of psychology will lead to a greater understanding of the causes and conditions of human behavior, as well as direct the ability of clinical psychologists to effect meaningful behavioral change.

We conducted an uncontrolled case study (ABA design) based upon the hypothesis that the behavior of a home-bound agoraphic is at least partially maintained by positive reinforcement in the home and that a disruption of access to home-based reinforcement would lead to an increased frequency of out-of-the-home behavior. Data concerning the types and amounts of behavior engaged in by the subject within the confines of her home and yard were gathered during a 30-day base line period. In addition, potential reinforcers in the home were identified by a survey schedule and by self-report of time allocation. During an 18-day intervention period the subject agreed only to engaged in certain reinforcing activities outside her home (e.g., only watching television at a neighbor's house). Postintervention results indicated that for the first time in over 7 years the subject began engaging in out-of-home activities, including walking to other parts of the street, visiting several neighbors' homes, and attending parties at neighbors' homes. Moreover, data suggested a positive trend in time spent outside the yard during both 2 and 18 month follow-up periods. However, significant restrictions in the range of mobility were still observed.

The system of ethics and values proposed by B. F. Skinner is one that has “naturalized” ethics and is therefore able to resolve conflicts by empirical means. Skinner has demonstrated that the naturalistic fallacy proposed by Moore (1903/1966) is a groundless theoretical argument, and that “good” can be adequately and effectively naturalized and placed within the realm of scientific scrutiny. Skinner’s naturalistic ethical system has effectively bridged the gap between what “is” and what “ought to be” in an ethical sense. On the level of individual conflicts, a science of behavior can tell us who is right by scientifically and rationally probing the best methods for achieving our purposes, and these purposes can best be operationalized as survivability. Critics of Skinner’s ethical system have claimed that they see no good reason to work for the good of the culture, undermining Skinner’s argument concerning the significance of the survivability of the species. Implications for Skinner’s naturalistic ethics are presented and analyzed. It is concluded that as our society and our world move closer and closer to extinction from individual desires rising above the good of society, immediate aversive consequences for these behaviors will begin to take place. A Skinnerian ethical analysis entails changing the contingencies of reinforcement to affect a majority of individuals, so that they may emit behaviors consistent with what is good for our culture and species as a whole.

The role of mathematical statements within the experimental analysis of behavior is examined. Several examples of quantitative statements are analyzed and discussed. The roles of mathematics in the context of functional description, a formalized language, the discovery of new relationships, and point predictions are examined. Mathematical statements outside the experimental analysis of behavior are also examined. It is argued that mathematical statements serve several significant functions within behavior analysis, including the reconstruction of large numbers of facts with a minimal amount of terms; the allowance for the precision of direct testing (including point predictions); the allowance for abstraction and generalization; and the ability to transform findings in order to discover new relationships.

Long-term habituation of male sexual arousal occurs when (a) short-term (intrasession) habituation occurs; (b) habituated arousal spontaneously recovers; (c) the magnitude of spontaneous remission decreases across habituation sessions; and (d) the number of trials to habituation decreases across sessions. Five undergraduate volunteers each had six sessions at one week intervals of 15 presentations of erotic audiotapes. For three weeks, the same audiotape was presented, and for each of the other three sessions a different audiotape was presented at every stimulus trial. As indicated by penile plethysmography and self-report, in the constant stimulus conditions the criteria for long-term habituation generally were met. By contrast, responses to variable stimuli remained consistently high. Theoretical and clinical implications of the habituation process are discussed.

The relation between freshman decidedness regarding academic major and self-assessed anticipated and adjustment to an engineering college was investigated. Positive relation was found between decided-ness regarding academic major and both anticipated adjustment (measured prematriculation) and actual adjustment (measured postmatriculation). The relation was clearer postmatriculation than prematriculation and was strongest for academic adjustment and weakest for social adjustment. There does not seem to be much consequence of changing from one engineering1 science major to another available at the same institution. However, change to a major not available at the same institution is associated with lower adjustment scores. Comparing findings from the present study with data from an earlier investigation, it is conjectured that the relation between decidedness and freshman adjustment to college may be stronger in engineering than in liberal arts.

Home page construction can give even the smallest academic department world access, in terms of both the sharing of information and the reception of data from Internet users as well as other academic departments. The World-Wide Web (WWW) allows for rapid dissemination of information and data pertinent to the science of psychology, as well as the exchange of information relevant to clinical and experimental psychology. This paper will explore and analyze resources relevant to the creation of a psychology department home page on the WWW.

The foundation, achievements, and proliferation of behavior therapy have largely been fueled by the movement's foundation in behavioral principles and theories. Although behavioral accounts of the genesis and treatment of psychopathology differ in the extent to which they emphasize classical or operant conditioning, the mediation of cognitive factors, and the role of biological variables, Pavlov's discovery of conditioning principles was essential to the founding of behavior therapy in the 1950s, and continues to be central to modern behavior therapy. Pavlov's reliance on a physiological model of the nervous system, sensible in the context of an early science of neurology, has had an implication for behavior therapists interested in the study of personality types. However, Pavlov's major legacy to behavior therapy was his discovery of “experimental neuroses,” shown by his students Eroféeva and Shenger-Krestovnikova, to be produced and eliminated through the principles of conditioning and counter-conditioning. This discovery laid the foundation for the first empirically-validated behavior therapy procedure, systematic desensitization, pioneered by Wolpe. The Pavlovian origins of behavior therapy are analyzed in this paper, and the relevance of conditioning principles to modern behavior therapy is demonstrated. It is shown that Pavlovian conditioning represents far more than a systematic basic learning paradigm. It is also an essential theoretical foundation for the theory and practice of behavior therapy.

Behavioral momentum, the persistence of behavior under altered environmental contingencies, is derived from Newtonian physics and operant psychology. It has relevance to behavior analysis in terms of shaping strong behaviors and ensuring effective relapse prevention strategies in behavior modification and therapy. The authors investigated whether changing the operant schedule contingencies affects the responses of older humans to different stimuli when reinforcement density is systematically manipulated. Fifteen older adults participated in a computer study in which each of 2 keys in a baseline condition was associated with the same schedule of reinforcement and multiple variable intervals; the only difference was that 1 reinforcer was 10 times larger than the other. After 6 sessions, the authors changed the contingency schedule to either an extinction condition, a variable-time schedule, or a different variable-interval schedule, to assess how participants' responses persisted when reinforcement contingencies were systematically changed. The results were consistent with the predictions of behavioral momentum. The participants not only biased their responses in favor of the more densely reinforcing key, but when contingencies changed, they showed significantly biased responses. Results supported the conclusion that healthy older adults allocate their behaviors in a manner very sensitive to training stimuli conditions; consistent with the basic principles of behavioral momentum, they show a degree of resistance to change in their behaviors when the behavioral contingencies are altered.

Circadian variability in depression has not been well characterized with respect to the "eveningness-morningness" dimension.The "eveningness-morningness" dimension, as measured by the Home and Ostberg questionnaire, was examined among a student population (n = 1617) that was named as "depressive". Three depression scales (BDI, GDS-SF, and CESD) were used to determine "depressiveness". The Horne and Ostberg questionnaire was used to measure the degree of "eveningness-morningness". It was hypothesized that there would be negative and significant correlations between the scores on the Horne and Ostberg questionnaire and the depression scales. Consequently, it was expected that there would be a significantly higher number of evening types than the morning types among the participants identified as "depressives".There were significant, negative correlations between the Horne and Ostberg questionnaire scores and the responses on the 3 depression scales (for BDI r= -.174, GDS-SF r= -.182, CESD r = -.176, all p.001). Also, a significantly higher incidence of evening types than of the morning types among the "depressive" students was found (chi2 = 11.18, p.01).It is uncertain to what extent these data generalize to clinical populations."Depressive" college students are more likely to be evening types.

Blanchard et al. (2008) call for the addition of a paraphilic condition to the DSM-V termed hebephilia. Beyond the fact that there was no control group employed by Blanchard et al. in order to compare the obtained results against normative patterns of sexual arousal of men, there were multiple methodological issues that preclude a call for the establishment of hebephilia as a diagnostic entity in the DSM-V. I find no problem with the plethysmography methodology employed by Blanchard et al.; however, I would note that Blanchard et al. did not specify whether the procedure for eliciting self-report of the subjects described as ‘‘a great deal of exploration’’ preceded or followed the physiological measurements. It would have been more sound for this procedure to follow physiological measurement so as not to serve as a potential sensitizing factor which could confound the results. Further, the grouping algorithm employed concerns me. There appears to be a significant amount of variability among the defined groups. Why not instead analyze those who reported exclusive or near-exclusive ranges of sexual responding to target age ranges? If none or too few of the participants indicated primary sexual attraction to pubescent males/females in the 11–14 year range in an original sample close to 3000, this is telling in and of itself. Blanchard et al. take Fig. 1 to be evidence that ‘‘the classification algorithm worked.’’ My inspection of the data does not leave me with this conclusion. On a 5-point Likert-type scale measuring a subjective factor, inspection of Fig. 1 reveals a significant amount of variability that may not, in the end, appropriately identify the subgroupings as described in the text. I did not see any statistical analysis of the discriminability of the labels assigned other than gross percentage figures for maximum attractiveness. So the validity of the group memberships themselves is at issue here. The absence of 15–18 year old stimuli also was problematic. I would also like to have seen more multivariate testing performed before charging in to a number of dependent sample t-tests (family wise error rate?). What I find astounding is how Blanchard et al. strongly word their discussion that these results mean ‘‘that hebephilia exists and–– incidentally––that it is relatively common compared with other forms of erotic interest in children.’’ The data do not support the conclusions reached in this article, especially the inclusion of a significant change to the DSM-V. Again, the data do not support the conclusions reached in this article. There does not appear to be any homogeneity of groupings along the axes of sexual interest groups (alluded to above). If there are ‘‘hebephiles’’ among us, then this sexual interest/ arousal pattern appears to be a very heterogeneous one. If it is heterogeneous, how can it have diagnostic specificity as Blanchard et al. state it has in their conclusion? Look at Fig. 3. In the pedophile groups (especially Pedo 2), there was significant overlap between physiological arousal to both pre-pubescent and pubescent girls. As a matter of fact, in their Pedo 2 group, there was more arousal to pubescent girls than to pre-pubescent girls. And this relation does not seem to hold for homosexual males (even though Blanchard et al. state that the hetero/homo groups were remarkably similar). How is that a diagnostic indicator of pedophilia? Also, there was a statistical difference in their pedophiles between pubescent girls and adult women. Is this a group primarily composed of non-exclusive pedophiles? If so, does this have different implication from groupings that would contain exclusive pedophiles? There is no way to answer that question given the data in the study. If their pedophiles show discrepant findings J. J. Plaud (&) 44 Hickory Lane, Whitinsville, MA 01588-1356, USA e-mail: plaud@fdrheritage.org

Understanding sexual fantasies is important to the scientific study of human sexuality. A sexual fantasy refers to a private or covert experience in which the imagination of desirable sexual activity with a partner is sexually arousing to the individual. Prior sexual experiences of an individual appear to increase the incidence of sexual fantasies, as well as the variety of sexual themes in a fantasy, which permit a greater elaboration of the fantasy theme when compared to less sexually experienced individuals. The present study was an investigation of the factors or sexual themes that emerge in a college male population, as well as a comparison of college men with human samples obtained in other studies: a sample of men and women and a sample of sexually variant men. In this study, 116 male students, all of whom identified themselves as heterosexual, completed the Wilson Sex Fantasy Questionnaire (WSFQ). Results indicated that the present sample had significantly more exploratory, intimate, impersonal, and total sexual fantasies than sexual fantasies reported by female respondents in another study using the WSFQ and significantly more intimate, impersonal, and total sexual fantasizing when compared with a male sample in another study. The men in this study also evidenced less deviant areas of sexual fantasizing when compared with a group of sexually variant men in another study. A principal components analysis extracted four factors, which accounted for 45% of the total variance. The four sexual fantasy topic areas for the most part replicated prior findings by Wilson (1988) but are also more heterogeneous, indicating that male college students engage in a variety of sexual fantasies but seem to favor more intimate, less deviant or exploratory sexual themes that are in line with nonclinical samples and different from several clinical samples of sexually variant men.

The psychometric characteristics of the Weekly Stress Inventory (WSI) were examined in a sample of medical patients (N = 84) diagnosed with coronary heart disease. In addition to the WSI, patients completed measures assessing recent depressive symptoms, physical symptoms, Type A behavior, and trait anxiety. Patients also monitored stress for 3 weeks (n = 46), completing the Daily Stress Inventory (a measure of minor stress) daily and the WSI at concurrent 1-week intervals. Results indicated that the WSI is an internally consistent and moderately stable measure. Validity of the WSI was supported by (a) strong correlations with a concurrently administered measure of minor stress (concurrent validity); (b) significant positive correlations with measures assessing recent depressive symptoms, physical symptoms, and Type A behavior; and (c) a lack of relationship with a measure of trait anxiety (discriminant validity).

This study examined interrelationships of psychosocial variables found in a psychological evaluation for erectile disorder in 75 male veterans with chronic medical illness. Patients whose partners participated in the evaluation were compared with those whose partners were not involved, and agreement on measures between patients and partners was examined. Finally, a principal components analysis was performed to assess the primary dimensions underlying the variance in mental health and sexual functioning variables. Five factors were identified, accounting for 65.5% of the variance. Results of these analyses are discussed in order to obtain an understanding of the interrelationship between behavioral, psychological, and interpersonal variables in the onset and course of sexual dysfunction.

Internet communication is becoming an important tool for both academic and clinical areas in psychology and behavior analysis. The Internet, a confederation of thousands of computer systems covering the entire globe (Plaud, 1996b), can significantly enhance behavior analysis in at least three major areas: (a) information exchange and communication among behavior analysts through list servers, (b) dissemination of empirical data and commentary through on-line journals and information servers, and (c) promotion of programs and services in behavior analysis. This commentary provides specific examples in each of these areas and addresses the basics of connecting to the Internet.