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There exists a long history of herbal products use but recently there are concerns on authenticity and safety of some these products. Majority of the herbal products traded in Kenyan markets are processed plant parts, which have been dried or in powder form and are extremely difficult to identify taxonomically. This study was carried out in selected markets in Nairobi County, the capital city of Kenya to assess authenticity of herbal products traded in the region using deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) barcoding technology by applying internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and ribulose -1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase Large subunit (rbcL) markers. One hundred and twelve herbal products were purchased from practicing herbalists and analyzed using ITS and rbcL DNA barcoding markers. DNA was extracted from acquired samples, amplified and sequences generated. BLAST search with edited generated sequences against the NCBI database was done to recover the expected species. Our findings showed that 35% of the herbal products were wrongly labeled and contained different species compared to those listed on the labels. Out of 92 samples with positive sequences, 58 matched their expected species after the BLAST search. Among the authentic species identified are O. lanceolata, M. oleifera, W. ugandensis, O. europaea, Acacia species, and C. spinarum. However, 32 species did not match the expected species as listed on labels and were concluded to have been substituted. Among them were R. prinoides, T. abyssinica, U. massaica and A. indica, which were substituted with their close relatives, while R. tridentate, Z. usambarense and Prunus africana were substituted with unrelated species with no reported medical benefits. ITS marker had remarkable identification efficiency at 98% to species level compared to rbcL at 89%. We recommend further studies to establish at what stage substitution takes place, as well as utilization of DNA barcoding technology for medicinal plants authentication and verification

The Refractance window dryer (RWD) is a fourth generation dehydration technology. RWD is used to dry heat-sensitive materials because it retains high nutrient content, colour, flavour, aroma and bioactive compounds. The dehydrated products have a high sensory quality. There were no RWD in East Africa despite their excellent performance hence need for local fabrication of RWD Prototypes that can meet the technical, economical and socio-economical requirements. This paper describes the performance evaluation and economic analysis of the RWD prototype developed at the Kenya Industrial and Development Institute (KIRDI), Kenya. Indicators such as drying rate and drying time were used to assess its technical performance. The economic performance of the dryer was appraised using Net Present Value (NPV), Internal Rate of Return (IRR), Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR), and Payback Period (PBP). Mango pulp and African leafy vegetables were dried using the RWD prototype at KIRDI between May-July, 2021. During drying process, moisture content of mango pulp was reduced from 88% to 15% in one hour while African leafy vegetable from 88% to 5% in 40 minutes. The economic evaluation of the dryer revealed an IRR of 31%, NPV of 808223.515 @ 24% and PBP of 3.6 years. KIRDI RWD prototype is a versatile technology that can be deployed in remote settings resulting to reduction of post-harvest losses as well as carbon emission. Currently, sun drying, solar drying, cabinet drying, spray drying, drum drying, fluidized bed drying and freeze drying are available in Kenya. They possess various advantages and equally significant drawbacks. Therefore the adoption of KIRDI’s Refractance window dryer would be beneficial to Micro Small and Medium enterprises in providing timely drying services and improve their socio-economic status.

A complex mix of natural processes exist in nearshore and offshore waters which influence coastal and marine ecosystem productivity. An understanding of the biogeochemical processes involved is a key element in interdisciplinary studies of primary production, oceanic flux and storage of carbon dioxide. Water circulation in the East African region is influenced by coastal currents driven by monsoon winds. There are four oceanic currents influencing Kenya’s coastal waters; namely the East African Coastal Current, the Somali Current, the Southern Equatorial Current and the Equatorial Counter Current. The Kenyan fishing industry is slowly embracing offshore fishing grounds, and the North Kenya Bank is emerging as the next fishery frontier. This study aims to provide insight on the processes driving the productivity of Kenya’s territorial waters. The variable Si* (the difference between available silicate [Si(OH)4] and nitrate [NO3-]) was employed as a proxy of upwelling. It was highly positively correlated to chlorophyll-a, indicating that upwelling is a major phenomenon driving productivity in Kenyan territorial waters. Particulate Organic Carbon (POC) and Dissolved Oxygen (DO) exhibited a lesser positive correlation with chlorophyll-a, implying that remineralization also has some influence in the productivity of the area.

A socio-economic assessment was carried out at Amu and Shela in Lamu County and Ngomeni in Kilifi County on the coast of Kenya. The aim was to establish fisher perspectives on the livelihood impacts of changes in upwelling associated with the East African Coastal Current, and adaptations in fishing practices to determine the vulnerability, resilience and adaptation options for fisheries dependent communities in this upwelling region. Primary data and information were collected through direct observation, semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews and oral histories. Descriptive and non-parametric analysis was conducted for quantitative data and content analysis for qualitative data. The study covered 92 respondents out of which 90 were male. About 82.5 percent of the respondents had attained different levels of primary school education and below, and were therefore highly vulnerable to climate change impacts. Furthermore, 80.4 percent of the respondents were aged between 20 years and 49 years with a mean age of 40 years, thus falling into the economically active age category. In terms of livelihoods, fishing and fishing-related activities formed the primary livelihoods at the three study sites with fishing being the main occupation for 93 percent of the respondents. Fishing effort was higher during the north-east monsoon season. Fifty two percent of the respondents targeted small pelagic species. The main changes observed included increased fishing effort and a decline in the quantity of fish caught per fisher, and changes in the composition of fish species. Changes in the composition of fish species have further been compounded by a decline in rainfall over time, sea level rise, irregular wind patterns and increased temperatures. The decline in fish catch further led to a general decline in income and welfare. The climatic changes increased vulnerability of the fishing communities.

This study was formulated to investigate productivity systems within Kenyan territorial waters. The interaction of processes on the margins of the marine waters, particularly the influx of fresh water loaded with sediments and nutrients, influences productivity of coastal waters. These deposited sediments, rich in nutrients, create a topographic barrier to the northerly flowing East African Coastal Current (EACC). Phosphate and nitrate peaks observed around the North Kenya Bank area provide evidence of an upwelling event. The contribution of sediments from the Lamu archipelago mangrove system is evident from the high observed particulate organic carbon (POC) input around the area. The system around the Lamu archipelago did not however show high chlorophyll-a levels despite the high POC influx. This may be due to the low levels of limiting phosphate in the surrounding waters, contrary to the observation further north in the region where high chlorophyll-a levels and corresponding higher phosphate levels were apparent. Productivity was largely supported by upwelling and organic matter mineralization. High levels of chlorophyll corresponded to high pelagic fish densities in the south (around 4.5°S) and north of the study area (around 2.5°S).

This study was conducted to characterize Dioscorea spp. in Kenya using morphological and molecular characteristics. Data on 22 morphological traits were subjected to cluster analysis and multivariate analysis using principal component (PCA). The dendrogram of cluster analysis revealed three main groups: Species distribution based on PC-1 and PC-2 showed the distantly related species in each quarter; D. alata L. (1st quarter), D. bulbifera L. (2nd quarter), D. cayenensis Lam. (3rd quarter) and D. minutiflora Engl. (4th quarter). In molecular characterization, one sub-cluster grouped D. minutiflora Engl. and D. burkilliana J. Miege as one genetic group. However not all D. minutiflora Engl. species were in one specific cluster showing that there may be variation within the species. D. alata L. and D. bulbifera were seen to be potentially related because they shared a common origin. D. bulbifera L. and D. cayenensis Lam. genotypes clustered together, indicating that the species might be closely related. Generally, the rbcL marker demonstrated the phylogeny of Kenyan Dioscorea spp L. Comparison of morphological and molecular data analysis gave almost similar results. From the study, the phylogenetic relationships of Kenyan Dioscorea spp. were established and morphological and molecular characterization was efficient in establishing species relatedness among Dioscorea spp. Key words: Dioscorea spp., rbcL, principal component analysis, molecular characterization, morphological characterization, yams.

Introduction A leading cause of acute gastroenteritis, norovirus can be transmitted by infected food handlers but norovirus outbreaks are not routinely investigated in Kenya. We estimated norovirus prevalence and associated factors among food handlers in an informal urban settlement in Nairobi, Kenya. Methods We conducted a cross-sectional survey among food handlers using pretested questionnaires and collected stool specimens from food handlers which were analyzed for norovirus by conventional PCR. We observed practices that allow norovirus transmission and surveyed respondents on knowledge, attitudes, and practices in food safety. We calculated odd ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) to identify factors associated with norovirus infection. Variables with p Results Of samples from 283 respondents, 43 (15.2%) tested positive for norovirus. Factors associated with norovirus detection were: reporting diarrhea and vomiting within the previous month (AOR = 5.7, 95% CI = 1.2–27.4), not knowing aerosols from infected persons can contaminate food (AOR = 6.5, 95% CI = 1.1–37.5), not knowing that a dirty chopping board can contaminate food (AOR = 26.1, 95% CI = 1.6–416.7), observing respondents touching food bare-handed (AOR = 3.7, 95% CI = 1.5–11.1), and working in premises without hand washing services (AOR = 20, 95% CI = 3.4–100.0). Conclusion The norovirus infection was prevalent amongst food handlers and factors associated with infection were based on knowledge and practices of food hygiene. We recommend increased hygiene training and introduce more routine inclusion of norovirus testing in outbreaks in Kenya.

Proximate analysis of twenty fruits and vegetable waste from Nairobi County was evaluated. They were obtained from Kangemi and Wakulima markets. Standard procedures were used for the analysis of crude fat, protein, fiber, carbohydrates, moisture, ash, nitrogen-free extract and energy. The results obtained revealed that moisture content was in the range of 82.8 to 95.86% apart from sweet potato and banana which was 62.05 and 74.30% respectively. Protein range was between 0.57 to 3.49% with high-fat content being recorded in avocado at 9.03%. The ash content was highest in comfrey at 3.46% and lowest in mango at 0.44%. The carbohydrate level obtained by the difference method was lowest in courgette at 1.99% with crude fiber ranging from 0.69 to 2.73%. The total calculated energy ranged from 1.94 to 39.98 Kcal/100g. The macro-nutrient concentrations were 3.59 and 1.53% for potassium and calcium respectively. Lead, iron and zinc were detected at 15.1±3.6, 3742±235 and 176±11 ppm respectively. There is the presence of proximate properties in the edible portion of wasted fruits and vegetable and therefore, this study recommends proper fruits and vegetable handling during harvest, transportation, storage and marketing. Besides, the unavoidable waste should be used as biomass in energy production to deal with landfilling issues in the market places.

Typhoid fever is caused by the bacteria Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Typhi (S. Typhi) and remains a significant health problem in many developing countries. Lack of adequate diagnostic capabilities has contributed greatly in making typhoid fever endemic in these regions. Reliable and inexpensive diagnostic tests are needed to improve the management of this disease burden. We evaluated the ability of staA, viaB and sopE genes to detect and differentiate between the three most prevalent Salmonella spp. in Kenya (S. Typhi, S. Typhimurium and S. Enteritidis) using conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The staA primers and viaB primers were found to be specific only for the different strains of S. Typhi, producing PCR products of 585 bp and 540 bp, respectively. The sopE primers was demonstrated to be specific for all Salmonella spp. producing a 465 bp PCR product with no amplification with E. coli and S. boydii bacterial strains.

Climate change is projected to cause significant reductions in global fisheries catch during the 21st Century. Yet, little is understood of climate change impacts on tropical fisheries, which support many livelihoods, as is the case in the Western Indian Ocean region (WIO). Here, we focus on two central WIO countries ― Kenya and Tanzania ― and run a multi-species fish model (Size Spectrum Dynamic Bio-climate Envelope Model; SS-DBEM) for 43 species of commercial and artisanal importance, to investigate the effects of climate change. We include both national Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) as domains. The model was forced by data from a biogeochemical model (NEMO-MEDUSA), run under the high emissions scenario Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 8.5, until the end of the 21st century. Impacts of fisheries and climate change were investigated by running SS-DBEM under five scenarios of fishing pressures to predict a range of possible future scenarios. Fishing pressure was represented as the Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY), expressed as MSY0, MSY1, MSY2, MSY3 and MSY4 representing fishing mortality of 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 times MSY, respectively. Large reductions in average fish biomass were projected over the 21st Century, with median reductions of fish species biomass of 63–76% and 56–69% for the Kenyan and Tanzanian EEZs respectively across the fishing scenarios. Tunas were particularly impacted by future climate change, with the six modelled species exhibiting biomass reductions of at least 70% in both EEZs for all fishing scenarios during the 21st Century. Reductions in fish biomass were much more severe during the second half of the 21st Century, highlighting the benefits to tropical fisheries of global action on climate change.

Microplastics (MPs) were collected at six locations along Kenya's marine nearshore surface waters using a 300 μm mesh-size manta net. The samples were washed over a 125-μm mesh size sieve No.120 into a glass jar and preserved in 70% ethanol. MPs were sorted, counted visually under a dissecting microscope then identified using attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy. A total of 1473 particles with an overall mean concentration of 0.58 ± 1.29 MPs m

Host-virus associations have co-evolved under ecological and evolutionary selection pressures that shape cross-species transmission and spillover to humans. Observed virus-host associations provide relevant context for newly discovered wildlife viruses to assess knowledge gaps in host range and estimate pathways for potential human infection. Using models to predict virus-host networks, we predicted the likelihood of humans as host for 513 newly discovered viruses detected by large scale wildlife surveillance at high-risk animal-human interfaces in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Predictions indicated that novel coronaviruses are likely to infect a greater number of host species than viruses from other families. Our models further characterize novel viruses through prioritization scores and directly inform surveillance targets to identify host ranges for newly discovered viruses.

Since independence in 2011, the Republic of South Sudan has witnessed growth in the financial systems and the overall economy. This has led to growth in the number of financial institutions in the country. There is however minimal research on their overall performance. Hence the current research sought to determine the effect of ownership structure, bank stability and the financial performance of commercial banks in South Sudan. The population for the study was all the 29 commercial banks in South Sudan. Secondary data was collected for the period 2012-2017 from audited annual financial reports of individual banks and the Central Bank of South Sudan reports while primary data was collected by the use of a semi-structured questionnaire. Collected data was edited, sorted and coded into SPSS 23 for subsequent data analysis using SPSS 23 statistical analysis tool. This research utilized both descriptive and inferential statistical methods in the analysis. Statistical tests to be utilized in the study included t-tests, f-test, regression models and ANOVA models. Findings of the research were presented using frequencies, percentages, means, standard deviation, correlation coefficients, charts, tables, and other statistical measures. Results of the study indicated there was a statistically significant moderating effect of ownership structure on the financial performance of commercial banks in South Sudan. This study recommends that the government should adopt better measures to safeguard public-owned commercial banks to improve their efficiency and performance.

Purpose: The purpose of the study was to determine the influence of information systems strategy implementation on Mobile-Commerce (M-Commerce) performance in Kenya’s commercial banks. Methodology: The study adopted a positivism research philosophy and explanatory research design as appropriate methodology for the study. The units of analysis for the study comprised of five managers from different management levels and departments from each of the 40 commercial banks in Kenya. Questionnaires were used for data collection. The collected data was analyzed using inferential and descriptive statistics.Findings The study findings indicated that there was positive and statistically significant relationship between information systems and m-commerce performance. The path coefficient was positive and significant at 0.05 level, t-value of 2.031, p-value =0.043. Unique Contribution to theory, practice and policy: The study informs commercial banks in Kenya, Central Bank of Kenya, Communication Authorities and the scholars on the opportunities in the development of appropriate strategy implementation process and the risk of not adopting the right strategy.

Background and objectives Understanding the social determinants of health is a major goal in evolutionary biology and human health research. Low socioeconomic status (often operationalized as absolute material wealth) is consistently associated with chronic stress, poor health and premature death in high-income countries. However, the degree to which wealth gradients in health are universal—or are instead made even steeper under contemporary, post-industrial conditions—remains poorly understood. Methodology We quantified absolute material wealth and several health outcomes among a population of traditional pastoralists, the Turkana of northwest Kenya, who are currently transitioning toward a more urban, market-integrated lifestyle. We assessed whether wealth associations with health differed in subsistence-level versus urban contexts. We also explored the causes and consequences of wealth-health associations by measuring serum cortisol, potential sociobehavioral mediators in early life and adulthood, and adult reproductive success (number of surviving offspring). Results Higher socioeconomic status and greater material wealth predicts better self-reported health and more offspring in traditional pastoralist Turkana, but worse cardiometabolic health and fewer offspring in urban Turkana. We do not find robust evidence for either direct biological mediators (cortisol) or indirect sociobehavioral mediators (e.g. adult diet or health behaviors, early life experiences) of wealth–health relationships in either context. Conclusions and implications While social gradients in health are well-established in humans and animals across a variety of socioecological contexts, we show that the relationship between wealth and health can vary within a single population. Our findings emphasize that changes in economic and societal circumstances may directly alter how, why and under what conditions socioeconomic status predicts health. Lay Summary High socioeconomic status predicts better health and more offspring in traditional Turkana pastoralists, but worse health and fewer offspring in individuals of the same group living in urban areas. Together, our study shows that under different economic and societal circumstances, wealth effects on health may manifest in very different ways.

Over eighty percent of the world population depend on traditional medicine for their basic health care needs. A study was carried out in three counties in Kenya (Kajiado, Narok and Nairobi) to document the common plant species traded as medicinal or herbal remedies. Structured interviews and questionnaire were administered to herbalists with prior informed consent, who were willing to disclose information on the source, plant type and parts of the herbal medicine they were selling and ailments treated. The folk or common names were recorded and later translated to scientific names using para-taxonomists and previous published data. Majority of the herbalists interviewed were between the ages of 40-59 years and comprised of mostly women (54%). The investigations revealed that eighty-six (86) plant species were traded as medicinal plants out of which 51% were commonly traded across the three counties. The study further revealed that the most traded plant parts were stem, bark and roots which could pose a threat to conservation of the species due to complete or partial destruction of the trees during harvesting. Aloe species, Prunus africana and Osyris lanceolata were highly traded an indication of their preference by local inhabitants to treat particular ailments. The generated list of medicinal plants species will form baseline data that could be used to generate a comprehensive list of all plant species traded as herbal medicine in Kenya. The commonly traded plants can also be included in pharmacological studies which may lead to development of new and potential drugs.

Typhoid fever is caused by the bacteria Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Typhi (S. Typhi) and remains a significant health problem in many developing countries. The lack of adequate diagnostic capabilities in these poor resource settings have contributed greatly in making typhoid fever endemic in these regions. Reliable and inexpensive diagnostic tests are needed to improve the management of this disease burden. This study evaluated the ability of staA, viaB and sopE genes to detect Salmonella spp. Conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of staA, viaB and sopE genes of Salmonella was used to detect and differentiate between the three most prevalent Salmonella spp. in Kenya (S. Typhi, S. Typhimurium and S. Enteritidis). The staA primers (StaA-Forward / StaA-Reverse) and viaB primers (vi-Forward / vi-Reverse) were found to be specific only for the different strains of S. Typhi, producing PCR products of 585 bp and 540 bp respectively. No amplification was observed with S. Typhimurium, S. Enteritidis, E. coli and S. boydii bacterial strains. The sopE primers (SopE-Forward / SopE-Reverse) was demonstrated to be specific for all Salmonella spp. producing a 465 bp PCR product with no amplification observed with the E. coli and S. boydii bacterial strains. Conventional PCR using these staA and viaB primers for detection of S. Typhi shows great potential for diagnosis of typhoid fever however, further studies need to be carried out with actual food samples and human samples (blood, stool or saliva) to determine the effectiveness of this method in the detection of common Salmonella spp. in Kenya.Author summaryTyphoid fever is a severe disease caused by the bacteria Salmonella Typhi (S. Typhi) and is a significant health problem in many developing countries. The lack of adequate diagnostic capabilities in poor resource settings common in most public health facilities in Kenya and Africa in general, hinder prompt diagnosis of typhoid fever. Currently, the available diagnostic tests are often expensive and more so not readily available in most resource poor endemic areas. This has often led to misdiagnosis of the disease, thereby delaying appropriate treatment and making typhoid fever widespread in most resource poor areas. This study examines the ability of three different genes to detect and differentiate between the three most prevalent Salmonella strains in Kenya using a readily available and widely used genetic test known as conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR). This research found that staA and viaB genes were specific only for S. Typhi, while the sopE gene was specific for all Salmonella strains. Consequently, conventional PCR using these staA and viaB genes for detection of S. Typhi shows great potential to be used as a readily available diagnostic tool to detect the presence of the S. Typhi organism in individuals or foods sample in Kenya.

The North Kenya Banks (NKBs) have recently emerged as a new frontier for food security and could become an economically important fishery for Kenya with improved resources providing better accessibility. Little research has been done on the mechanisms supporting high fish productivity over the NKBs with information on annual and interannual environmental variability lacking. Here we use a high‐resolution, global, biogeochemical ocean model with remote sensing observations to demonstrate that the ocean circulation exerts an important control on the productivity over the NKBs. During the Northeast Monsoon, which occurs from December to February, upwelling occurs along the Kenyan coast, which is topographically enhanced over the NKBs. Additionally, enhanced upwelling events, associated with widespread cool temperatures, elevated chlorophyll, nutrients, primary production, and phytoplankton biomass, can occur over this region. Eight such modeled events, characterized by primary production exceeding 1.3 g C/m−2/day, were found to occur during January or February from 1993–2015. Even though the upwelling is always rooted to the NKBs, the position, spatial extent, and intensity of the upwelling exhibit considerable interannual variability. The confluence zone between the Somali Current and East African Coastal Current (referred to as the Somali‐Zanzibar Confluence Zone) forms during the Northeast Monsoon and is highly variable. We present evidence that when the Somali‐Zanzibar Confluence Zone is positioned further south, it acts to enhance shelf‐edge upwelling and productivity over the NKBs. These findings provide the first indication of the environmental controls that need to be considered when developing plans for the sustainable exploitation of the NKB fishery.

Human yaws has historically been endemic to Kenya, but current epidemiologic data are lacking. We report seroprevalence for Treponema pallidum antibodies in olive baboons (Papio anubis) and vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) in Laikipia County, Kenya. Our results suggest endemicity of the yaws bacterium in monkeys, posing a possible zoonotic threat to humans. US Agency for International Development Emerging Pandemic Threats PREDICT ProjectUnited States Agency for International Development (USAID) [GHN-A-OO-09-00010-00]; German Research FoundationGerman Research Foundation (DFG) [DFG KN 1097/3-1] This study was supported by the US Agency for International Development Emerging Pandemic Threats PREDICT Project (cooperative agreement mo. GHN-A-OO-09-00010-00) and the German Research Foundation (grant DFG KN 1097/3-1 to S.K.).

The Tana River is the longest river system in Kenya (~1000 km) and contributes ~ 50% of the total river discharge to Kenyan coastal waters. The river discharges significant amounts of nutrients and sediments, reaching ~24,000 tons per day during the rainy season (March–April), into Ungwana Bay (North Kenya Banks). The bay is an important habitat for high-value Panaeid prawn species which sustain important small-scale fisheries, semi-industrial bottom trawl prawn fisheries, and is the livelihood mainstay in the surrounding counties. In this study we analysed >20 years of satellite-derived chlorophyll-a observations (Chl-a, an index of phytoplankton biomass), along with in situ river discharge and rainfall data, to investigate if the Tana River discharge is a major driver of local phytoplankton biomass in Ungwana Bay and for the neighbouring Kenyan shelf. We find that during the rainy inter-monsoon (March–April), a significant positive relationship (r = 0.63, p < 0.0001) exists between river discharge and phytoplankton biomass. There is a clear time-lag between rainfall, river discharge (1-month lag) and local chlorophyll biomass (2-months lag after discharge). Unlike offshore waters which exhibit bi-annual chl-a peaks (0.22 mg m−3 in February, and 0.223 mg m−3 in August/September), Ungwana Bay displays a single peak per annum in July (2.51 mg m−3), with indications that river discharge sustains phytoplankton biomass for several months. Satellite-derived observations and Lagrangian tracking simulations indicate that higher Chl-a concentrations remain locally within the bay, rather than influencing the broader open waters of the North Kenya Banks that are mainly impacted by the wider oceanic circulation.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of comprehensive strategic decision-making and long-term orientation on the organizational performance of dairy co-operatives in Kenya. Methodology: The study adopted the positivist research philosophy and descriptive correlational research design. The population of the study consisted of 198 executive directors/managers of active dairy co-operatives in eight counties in the Mt. Kenya region. A sample size of 184 was drawn using stratified random sampling, and data was collected using self-administered questionnaires. The data was then analyzed using descriptive statistics of frequency, mean, and standard deviation. Additionally, inferential data analysis methods of Pearson’s correlation, ANOVA, and multiple linear regression were used to test the hypotheses. Results : The multiple linear regression results indicated that long-term orientation significantly predicted revenue per customer, b = 9.85, t (141) = 3.35, p