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One of the markers of the Late Pleistocene is highly fluctuating climatic conditions, with the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, 26.5–19 ka cal before present (BP)) known to be one of the coldest periods. This work explores how the environment of north-eastern Iberia changed in relation to global climatic changes experienced during the Late Pleistocene, specifically around the LGM. Small mammal assemblages from Cudó cave (Tarragona, Spain) were used considering their well-known reliability for palaeoenvironmental reconstructions. Based on the taxonomic identification and the taphonomic analysis, several methodologies covering both qualitative and quantitative approaches were used to obtain the palaeoenvironmental information corresponding to level 107 and level 105 of Cudó cave (31.2–24.4 and 15.5–10.2 ka cal BP, respectively). The taphonomic results obtained point out owls (category 3) as the main accumulator of the small mammals. The palaeoenvironmental reconstruction shows that both levels experienced colder (−7.2oC/–4.4 °C) and wetter (+848 mm/ + 586 mm) climatic conditions than nowadays. However, in level 107 the environment was dominated by mid-European species and rocky landscape, while in level 105 it was dominated by Mediterranean species and woodland habitat. These conditions are consistent with the trend in north-eastern Iberia following several climatic events before and after the LGM coinciding with the period of Cudó cave assemblages.

Paradigms such as the coexistence of incineration and inhumation funerary practices in the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula during the Late Bronze Age are supported by the association of human remains with elements of material culture as guiding fossils. One example is the association established by Salvador Vilaseca in 1939 between the human remains and grooved pottery discovered in the Cova de Marcó in Tivissa (Ribera d’Ebre, Catalonia). This association has been accepted until today and even become a paradigm for the mixing of autochthonism (inhumation rites) with the introduction of material novelties such as grooved pottery and incineration rites during the first period of the Late Bronze Age. Direct radiocarbon (14C) dating of human remains from the Cova de Marcó shows that the remains originate from the Chalcolithic period. This indicates that there is no relationship between the sepulchral episode and the grooved pottery associated with it and used to date it. This disputes the paradigm regarding the coexistence of these two funerary practices during the Late Bronze Age and invites scholars to conduct a critical review using absolute dating techniques directly on the human remains of similar cases in order to verify or disprove the paradigm’s validity.

Altres ajuts: acords transformatius de la UAB Unidad de excelencia María de Maeztu CEX2019-000940-M The use of resinous substances, certainly one of the earliest technologies developed by humans, was well-known by Holocene hunter-gatherers at the onset of the Neolithisation process across Europe. Recent research has revealed the use of birch bark tar in the central Mediterranean far from this taxon's endemic regions both in the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods and shows that the first farmers from the Fertile Crescent hafted lithic tools and waterproofed artefacts using bitumen. The generalised absence of these natural products in south-western Europe may have thus forced a reformulation of Early Neolithic technologies by exploring and benefitting from existing knowledge in local European hunter-gatherer societies. However, information on resin use from the western Mediterranean is still scarce. Here, we report on the analysis of organic residues from 168 pottery sherds by gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry from 10 archaeological sites in this region dating from the second half of the VIth millennium to the first half of the Vth millennium cal BC. In a limited number of samples, minor amounts of several diterpenoids diagnostic of aged Pinaceae resins were detected as mixtures with fats. The presence of pine in the palynological and carpological record supports the human exploitation of this taxon, but its minimal incidence in the anthracological record suggests that other species were selected as fuelwood. This supports the hypothesis that Pinaceae resins were used in association with pottery sporadically but ubiquitously either as its contents, or as post-firing treatments to waterproof the vessels. This demonstrates the development of adhesive technologies and resin-involved labour processes specific to Early Neolithic societies.

Recently, there has been a proliferation of studies focused on traceological analyses of shell tools, most of which have been carried out using high magnifications. In contrast, wear patterns identified in other types of shell objects, such as ornaments, are usually analyzed at low magnifications. A new approach to the technological and functional analysis of Paleolithic Homalopoma sanguineum shell beads is proposed here. This taxon has been considered especially problematic in archaeomalacology for several reasons. First, it is a very rare species in on current coasts, so conducting perforation and suspension experiments is logistically difficult. This leaves two unique routes for the acquisition of data: analogous experiments on other seashells, which is not recommended based on the characteristics of the internal structure of this species, or directly through the study of archaeological specimens. Secondly, it has been considered impossible to successfully perform use-wear analyses due to the physical characteristics of this species. Lastly, the high reflective capacity of the species' inner nacreous layer can make its study via optical microscopy difficult. Given these issues, the goal of this study is to compare the advantages and disadvantages of the microscopy equipment conventionally used for use-wear analysis. By comparing multiple microscopes’ accuracy in identifying polishing, striation, and micro-chipping patterns, a set of criteria has been generated which can be used not only in analyses of H. saguineum, but in a wide range of nacreous ornaments.

Dental microwear has been used for the reconstruction of diet for decades, and given its long history, substantial changes in the methodologies and technologies used to observe and quantify microwear have occurred. For instance, early work on microwear used optical microscopy (OM), before being largely replaced by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). More recently, SEM-based studies have been overshadowed by confocal microscopy and dental microwear texture analysis. However, SEM is still the preferred method of data acquisition for buccal microwear analysis and significant improvements in OM have also occurred in recent years – particularly with the development of continuous focus systems for OM. Given the low-cost and simple upkeep of OM compared to SEM, this study seeks to explore the utility of OM for buccal microwear data acquisition compared to the methods established using SEM. A sample of 18 human teeth (originals and casts) were analyzed using both OM and SEM. Results show that more striations are observed using OM than when analyzing the same surface with SEM. However, the central counting trend is similar with both techniques. We can therefore conclude that OM is a consistent and user-friendly method that provides good image resolution together with a series of economic and technical advantages.

Gigapixel and gigapixel-like (GPL) imaging strategies are a powerful means of communicating scientific results of visual observations in academic and public spheres. GPL images are made from a photomosaic of multiple, adjacent extended focus images, which allows users to “pan and zoom” across a surface to document or analyze specific features. Microscopic approaches using GPL imaging strategies are gaining popularity in use-wear analyses of lithics and bone implements but have not been applied to the study of human skeletal or dental remains. Here we present three examples of GPL imaging using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of the dental surfaces of teeth excavated from the Chalcolithic contexts of El Mirador Cave (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain). Numerous common features are identifiable in the GPL examples from El Mirador Cave that include wear features (e.g., enamel chipping, labial striations), perikymata, calculus deposits, hypoplasias, and postmortem taphonomic features. One GPL example shows a less-commonly documented pair of lingual surface features (i.e., lingual surface attrition of the maxillary anterior teeth [LSAMAT] and a continuous cingular lesion [CCL]) for which co-occurrence has not been previously documented. Another example using a combination of GPL, macrophotography, and additional high magnification SEM images shows a case of chemical erosion on a labial surface of the tooth - a seldom documented form of wear in bioarchaeological contexts. This latter example also highlights the complementary nature of SEM (and GPL) with digital macrophotography for documenting dental wear features. Together, these examples illustrate the utility of GPL images of dental surfaces for didactic purposes and analysis.

Neolithisation was a relatively fast process that affected both the interior and coastal zones of the Iberian Peninsula, but it was also a heterogeneous process that had diverse impacts on genomic and cultural diversity. In the Late Neolithic–Chalcolithic, a change in funerary practices, cultural material and trade networks occurred, and genomic heterogeneity decreased, suggesting human mobility and genetic admixture between different Iberian populations. Dental morphology has emerged as an effective tool for understanding genomic variability and biological affinities among ancient human populations. But, surprisingly, less attention has been paid to the morphological traits of inner dental tissues in Holocene European populations and their utility for the study of population dynamics. We applied 3D geometric morphometric methods on the enamel-dentine junction (EDJ) of the first upper molars to explore the biological affinities of north-eastern Iberian Peninsula populations from the Late Neolithic–Chalcolithic to the Bronze Age. Our results show that the EDJ morphologies of the northern Iberian Peninsula populations were generally homogeneous, indicative of genetic admixture as a result of human mobility and exchange networks. However, differences in the EDJ traits in remains from the Can Sadurní site are indicative of distant biological affinities with nearby populations. Additionally, the hypocone associated dentine area and the position of the trigon dentine horns relative to each other on the occlusal surface best describe the variability found among the samples studied. This study highlights the utility of EDJ morphology as a genetic proxy in Holocene population dynamic studies when paleogenomic studies are absent.

Early husbandry practices that include herd management and the use of livestock areas such as sheepfold caves can be analysed in the context of different disciplines (e.g. zooarchaeology, micromorphology, and archaeobotany). In this study, a new and standard method for the determination of bile acids and steroidal hormones that incorporates microwave extraction-liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry was used. This method has been applied successfully to analyse Neolithic fumier deposit facies from the El Mirador cave, a location that was used as a prehistoric sheepfold and is located in the Atapuerca range (Burgos, Spain). The results obtained demonstrated that the analysis of bile acids can be useful for the identification of remains of ruminant residues in the facies studied. In addition, the progesterone/deoxycholic acid ratio has been used as a possible biomarker to improve our understanding of flock management, including the separation of pregnant and nursing ewes from the rest of the herd to avoid the rejection of the lamb and keep them safe and healthy. The authors thank the technical and human support provided by the Alava Central Service of Analysis of SGIker (UPV/EHU, MINECO, GV/ EJ, ERDF, and ESF) and Paula Rivero for the elaboration of the graphical abstract. Patricia Martín is grateful for her postdoctoral fellowship to Juan de la Cierva Subprogramme (FJCI-2016-29045) with financial sponsorship from the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry, and Competitiveness and for her recent "Maria de Maeztu" excellenceaccreditation from the Spanish Minstry of Science and Innovation (CEX2019-000945-M), and to Ane Gorostizu-Orkaiztegi for her pre- doctoral fellowships to the University of the Basque Country. This work was funded by the Department of Industry, Innovation, Commerce, and Tourism of the Basque Government (SAI12/25 Project), the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and University (PGC 2018-093925-B- C32 project) and by the Basque Government, Research Groups of the Basque University System (Project No. IT925-16).

In this manuscript, we present the first systematic refitting results of the small-scale Middle Pleistocene (MIS11) rock shelter site of La Cansaladeta. The lithic materials that have been recovered from the archaeological levels E and J were the main study materials. These levels were investigated regarding spatial pattern analysis and analyzed with auxiliary methods such as quantitative density mapping demonstration and technological analysis of the lithic clusters. Thus, the spatial patterns of the two levels were compared and discussed, in terms of connections, clusters, and movement of the lithic elements. Undoubtedly, the well preservation of the archaeological levels offered a great opportunity for the interpretation of the spatial patterns in a high-resolution perspective. La Cansaladeta has not been paid attention adequately so far may be due to the small dimension of the excavation surface or to the scarcity of faunal record. Our results show that small-scale sites without long-distance refit/conjoin connections can provide significant spatial information. Indeed, if the sites have very well-preserved archaeological levels, the absence of long connections can be supported by the auxiliary methods.

Ancient dental calculus research currently relies on destructive techniques whereby archeological specimens are broken down to determine their contents. Two strategies that could partly remediate a permanent loss of the original sample and enhance future analysis and reproducibility include (1) structural surface characterization through spectroscopy along with crystallographic and spectroscopic analysis of its molecular structure, and (2) surface decontamination protocols in which the efficacy of cleaning dental calculus prior to extraction is demonstrated. Dental calculus provides ancient starch research a niche where granules may be adsorbed to minerals, coated, overgrown, entrapped, and/or protected from chemical degradation. While encapsulation offers protection from degradation, it does not shield the sample’s surface from contamination. The most common approach to retrieving microbotanical particles from archeological calculus has been the direct decalcification of the sample, after a cleaning stage variously consisting of immersion in water, acids, and mechanical dislodgment via gas, sonication, and/or toothbrushes. Little is known about the efficiency of these methods for a complete removal of sediment/soil and unrelated microbotanical matter. In this paper, controlled laboratory experimentation leads to chemical structural characterization and a decontamination protocol to eradicate starch granules. Several concentrations of acids, bases, and enzymes were tested at intervals to understand their potential to gelatinize and fully destroy starch granules; arriving at a procedure that effectively eradicates modern starch prior to dissolution without damaging the matrix or entrapped starch microremains. This is the first attempt at creating synthetic calculus to understand and systematically test effective decontamination protocols for ancient starch research.

The beginning of husbandry in the Iberian Peninsula has been documented from the second half of the 6th millennium BCE and was based on the breeding of domestic caprines, mainly sheep. The first evidence of these practices comes from the Mediterranean region, but they quickly expanded inland. Previous studies have reported on the importance of the El Mirador sheepfold cave (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain) for understanding the process of the adoption of a farming economy in this inland region. In this study, we focus on husbandry and sheep management occurring in the 6th and 5th millennium cal BCE occupations of El Mirador cave by means of sequential oxygen (δ18O) and carbon (δ13C) isotope analyses in sheep molar tooth enamel. The results show a rapid adaptation and adoption of domestic sheep in the inland of the Iberian Peninsula. In El Mirador cave, well-organised sheep breeding was developed based on the concentration of births at the end of winter and early spring, for a period of ~2.64 months, which made husbandry more compatible with other economic activities. In 5th millennium levels, autumn births were also documented and may be indicative of the intervention of the shepherd in the reproductive cycle of the sheep and of a progressive adaptation of these animals to the interior of the Peninsula. All these strategies may have been supported by the recurrent occupations of the sheepfold, flocks grazing in the areas surrounding the cave and the possible use of leaf fodder in winter.

Dated to 1.4 Mya, the Barranco Leon site (Orce, Andalusia, Spain) is currently the oldest and richest late Lower Pleistocene stone tool assemblage discovered so far in Europe. Archeological and paleontological remains are found clearly associated in lacustrine deposits traversed by a small channel. This paper provides new data about the lithic assemblage from level D, focusing on the abundant active percussion implements that form a part of the highly divers set of limestone macro-tools unique to this assemblage. Morpho-technological and experimental analysis of these tools allows us to hypothesize about the kinds of activities that might have been carried out by hominins at this site. Experimental work allows us to define percussive trace morphologies and to identify new types of percussion tools in the collection, beyond those of classical, ellipsoidal morphology. Analysis of the stone surfaces used for active percussion demonstrates that, while some of the tools could have been used for stone knapping, other hammer morphologies are not well adapted for this kind of activity. The morphology of the tools and the type of percussion damage displayed on their active surfaces provide criteria with which to widen the activity range of the hominins that used them. This study of the percussion instruments from Barranco Leon contributes essential data with which to buttress the growing interest in the macro component of Oldowan stone toolkits African and Eurasian sites and their possible uses.

Heavy-duty scrapers are documented as a specific morphotype in ancient African and Eurasian toolkits from the Oldowan into the Acheulian. They are characterized by a flat platform perpendicularly oriented to a carinated edge. The convex surface of that edge displays semi-peripheral, unidirectional removals associated with steep retouch and/or crush marks. This morphotype has been described from numerous sites covering a long temporal scale and are diversely referred to in French as “rostro-carenes” or “nucleus-racloirs” and in English as “massive scrapers”, “core scrapers”, “large scrapers”, or “heavy end-scrapers”. Morpho-technological definitions and interpretations are reviewed to track the origin and evolution of heavy-duty scrapers over time and space. Results show that tools referred to as heavy-duty scrapers were made on thick cobbles during the Oldowan, and later, at the onset of the Acheulian, on Large Flakes, while smaller-sized items in Late Acheulian sites assume end-scraper morphologies. But should all of these tools really be grouped under a single denomination? Experimental work explores whether heavy-duty scrapers are the result of knapping processes, or if their morphology could be derived from other kinds of activities. Chronological continuity of the attributes specific to heavy-duty scrapers points to their role in ancient toolkits, suggesting that these scarce but ubiquitous primitive implements are, on equal footing with chopper-cores, one of the oldest morphotypes in the world.

[EN]Faecal matter is commonly recovered from archaeological sites related to human/animal activity. The identification of its source is essential to understand the domestication process and the relationship between humans and domestic animals in ancient times. Additionally, faecal matter is useful for determining the diet of animals. Therefore, the use of an appropriate biomarker is essential. The ratios of 5 beta-Stanols and bile acid biomarkers are most commonly used to identify the biogenic origin of faecal matter. However, other biomarkers such as archaeol can be a good proxy for ruminants. Conversely, plant-based diet of the animals can be discerned by analysis of faecal matter. n-Alkanes are the most common proxies of the animal diet, followed by long-chain fatty acids and long-chain alcohols, and the interest in the analysis of carbon isotopes has recently increased owing to the possibility of distinguishing animal diets. In this review, we describe the identification of faecal and diet biomarkers in animals. Ratios and proxies used in archaeological fields are also described and discussed to determine the best approach for accurate identification. This work was funded by the Basque Government, Research Groups of the Basque University System (Project No. IT1186-19) .

A number of authors have studied the variability of total perikymata counts on permanent incisors in different modern human populations, finding that some populations show a significantly lower number of perikymata than others. However, little is known about the overall variability of these traits in archaeological populations of modern humans. Our aim was to broaden the available data on total perikymata counts on incisors, and to further discuss enamel extension rate variability in modern human incisors. Our sample consisted of 15 incisors from three different archaeological populations belonging to the Holocene: two populations from Mirador Cave (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos) assigned to two different chronological periods, and a population from Maltravieso Cave (Caceres). We refer to these populations as the MTV–MIR sample. Perikymata were counted from several images obtained using an environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM). Our results suggest the total number of perikymata of the MTV–MIR incisors fall most comfortably within the distribution of counts reported for modern Europeans and Inuit rather than those representing southern African samples of incisors. Furthermore, the percentage of the perikymata numbers in the last five deciles into which the crowns were divided (the cervical half) did not show statistically significant differences when compared to the other modern human populations. This suggests that enamel extension rates among modern human incisors share a common pattern, which might differ from that present in other species. More data from other modern and archaeological sub-Saharan African samples are needed to test whether low perikymata counts are exclusive to the southern African group or are indeed truly representative of sub-Saharan African populations as a whole today and in the past.

All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files. Lithic material inventories and basic analyses may be consulted in the Field Season Reports that the Orce Research Team delivers yearly to Junta de Andalucia, which are freely available by request. The studied material is preserved in the Archaeological and Ethnographical Museum of Granada (Andalucía, Spain)., The lithic assemblage of Barranco León (BL), attributed to the Oldowan techno-complex, contributes valuable information to reconstruct behavioral patterning of the first hominins to disperse into Western Europe. This archaic stone tool assemblage comprises two, very different groups of tools, made from distinct raw materials. On the one hand, a small-sized toolkit knapped from Jurassic flint, comprising intensively exploited cores and small-sized flakes and fragments and, on the other hand, a large-sized limestone toolkit that is mainly linked to percussive activities. In recent years, the limestone macro-tools have been the center of particular attention, leading to a re-evaluation of their role in the assemblage. Main results bring to light strict hominin selective processes, mainly concerning the quality of the limestone and the morphology of the cobbles, in relation to their use-patterning. In addition to the variety of traces of percussion identified on the limestone tools, recurrences have recently been documented in their positioning and in the morphology of the active surfaces. Coupled with experimental work, this data has contributed to formulating hypothesis about the range of uses for these tools, beyond stone knapping and butchery, for activities such as: wood-working or tendon and meat tenderizing. The abundance of hammerstones, as well as the presence of heavy-duty scrapers, are special features recognized for the limestone component of the Barranco Leo´n assemblage. This paper presents, for the first time, another characteristic of the assemblage: the presence of polyhedral and, especially, subspheroid morphologies, virtually unknown in the European context for this timeframe. We present an analysis of these tools, combining qualitative evaluation of the raw materials, diacritical study, 3D geometric morphometric analysis of facet angles and an evaluation of the type and position of percussive traces; opening up the discussion of the late Oldowan beyond the African context., This research has been funded by the Junta de Andalucía, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deporte: Orce Research Project “Primeras ocupaciones humanas y contexto paleoecológico a partir de los depósitos pliopleistocenos de la cuenca Guadix-Baza: zona arqueolo´gica de la Cuenca de Orce (Granada, España), 2017–2020”; "Presencia humana y contexto paleoecológico en la cuenca continental de Guadix-Baza. Estudio e interpretacio´n a partir de los depósitos Plio-Pleistocénicos de Orce. Granada. España" B120489SV18BC, 2012-16; "Primeras ocupaciones humanas del Pleistoceno inferior de la cuenca de Guadix-Baza (Granada, España)" B090678SVI8BC, 2009-11; MICINN (no feder) "Estudio de las dispersiones faunísticas y humanas durante el Pleistoceno inferior en la cuenca mediterránea.", CGL2016-80975-P, 2017- 19; the Spanish government Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades (MICINN-FEDER) code CGL2016-80975-P, and the Generalitat de Catalunya Research Group 2017SGR 859. “Comportamiento ecosocial de los homínidos de la Sierra de Atapuerca durante el Cuaternario V”, MICINN-FEDER PGC2018-093925-B-C32 and the Generalitat de Catalunya, AGAUR agency, SGR 859 and SGR 1040. Gerda Henkel Foundation (AZ 32/V/ 19, Lower Paleolithic Spheroids Project (LPSP) is assuring continuity in this line of research. ST is beneficiary of the Provincia Autonoma di Bolzano (Italy) post-master scholarship. AB has been funded from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie Action grant agreement PREKARN nº702584. The research of DB, JMV, & RSR is funded by CERCA Programme/Generalitat de Catalunya. JMJA belongs to the Research Group HUM-607.

Over the last years, the knowledge of the children’s diet is a topic of growing interest in dental anthropology. Our aim seeks to establish patterns of interpopulation and intrapopulation variability in dietary microwear among children from four Iberian sites dated to the Neolithic through Bronze Age. Buccal and occlusal surfaces are compared to assess whether their differential rates of microwear turnover correspond with dietary differences linked to social and biological maturation (e.g., weaning and shifts to adult-like diets). This study is based on the analysis of 46 deciduous molars (Udm1, Udm2, and Ldm2). Occlusal and buccal surfaces were observed using an environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM) following standard microwear methodologies. The results show that from an interpopulation perspective, there are differences in the number of buccal scratches between Valdavara and the other sites. From an intrapopulation perspective, there was a greater number of buccal striations in the older age category from Cova de la Guineu and more occlusal pitting in the older age category from Cova dels Galls Carboners. This study shows the utility of the combined approach to buccal and occlusal microwear analysis as a means of understanding child dietary maturation in prehistory, showing that feeding practices and/or food choice can explain differences between specific age categories of children in addition to differences between archeological sites.

We assembled genome-wide data from 271 ancient Iberians, of whom 176 are from the largely unsampled period after 2000 BCE, thereby providing a high-resolution time transect of the Iberian Peninsula. We document high genetic substructure between northwestern and southeastern hunter-gatherers before the spread of farming. We reveal sporadic contacts between Iberia and North Africa by ~2500 BCE and, by ~2000 BCE, the replacement of 40% of Iberia's ancestry and nearly 100% of its Y-chromosomes by people with Steppe ancestry. We show that, in the Iron Age, Steppe ancestry had spread not only into Indo-European-speaking regions but also into non-Indo-European-speaking ones, and we reveal that present-day Basques are best described as a typical Iron Age population without the admixture events that later affected the rest of Iberia. Additionally, we document how, beginning at least in the Roman period, the ancestry of the peninsula was transformed by gene flow from North Africa and the eastern Mediterranean., J.M.F., F.J.L.-C., J.I.M., F.X.O., J.D., and M.S.B. were supported by HAR2017-86509-P, HAR2017-87695-P, and SGR2017-11 from the Generalitat de Catalunya, AGAUR agency. C.L.-F. was supported by Obra Social La Caixa and by FEDER-MINECO (BFU2015- 64699-P). L.B.d.L.E. was supported by REDISCO-HAR2017-88035-P (Plan Nacional I+D+I, MINECO). C.L., P.R., and C.Bl. were supported by MINECO (HAR2016-77600-P). A.Esp., J.V.-V., G.D., and D.C.S.-G. were supported by MINECO (HAR2009-10105 and HAR2013-43851-P). D.J.K. and B.J.C. were supported by NSF BCS-1460367. K.T.L., A.W., and J.M. were supported by NSF BCS-1153568. J.F.-E. and J.A.M.-A. were supported by IT622-13 Gobierno Vasco, Diputación Foral de Álava, and Diputación Foral de Gipuzkoa. We acknowledge support from the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (PTDC/EPH-ARQ/4164/2014) and the FEDER-COMPETE 2020 project 016899. P.S. was supported by the FCT Investigator Program (IF/01641/2013), FCT IP, and ERDF (COMPETE2020 – POCI). M.Si. and K.D. were supported by a Leverhulme Trust Doctoral Scholarship awarded to M.B.R. and M.P. D.R. was supported by an Allen Discovery Center grant from the Paul Allen Foundation, NIH grant GM100233, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. V.V.-M. and W.H. were supported by the Max Planck Society.

This paper discusses the Middle Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age phases of the occupation of a rock shelter at Vallone Inferno (Scillato, Palermo) in Sicily. Vallone Inferno is a key site for studying the early establishment and development of pastoralism in the prehistoric mountainous environments of Sicily. Seasonal use of the site as a shelter is documented for the earliest pastoral communities that exploited the Madonie mountain range. The results of the analysis of pottery and lithic assemblages contribute to the definition of two chronocultural frameworks that were linked by the same economic subsistence base. The special role of obsidian emerges, while the mobility patterns of human groups are contextualized by the combination of archaeological and paleoenvironmental data with a focus on the 4.2 ka cal BP aridification climatic event broadly coincident with the final part of the local Copper Age and beginning of the Early Bronze Age. Moreover, since the transition between the Late Copper Age and the Early Bronze Age, mobility of pastoral groups is inferred to be one of the most important factors for the spread of cultural elements on the island.

The archaeological research focusing on El Mirador Cave (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain) has revealed a succession of occupation levels in a dung layers context that span from the early Neolithic to the middle Bronze Age. The robustness and coherence of the chronological dates of the sequence have contributed to framing the beginning of farming practices on the northern Plateau of the Iberian Peninsula. This study focuses on the palynological analysis of the sedimentary sequence, spanning from ca. 7970–7770 to ca. 3390–3070 cal. yr BP. The results have allowed us to identify a landscape of mixed forest with evergreen and deciduous oaks and pinewood. Despite the discontinuities in such sediments, some fluctuations between different categories of anthropogenic taxa can be observed throughout the sequence, illustrating greater or lesser pressure from livestock or agriculture. From the Neolithic to the Bronze Age, we documented a reduction in the tree cover because of increased human pressure typical of the Neolithisation process, while the relationship between environment and society changes.

The polish generated by sheep and goats in the walls of caves and stone-made enclosures is a clear indicator about their use as a livestock folds. The study of the polish distribution and intensity, together with the data revealed by the sedimentary context, or even if it is absent, allows to understand the kind of management carried out with the animal dung. In this way it is possible to identify if the dung has been merely dismissed, if it has been periodically extracted for the field manuring, and also if it has been intensively exploited by the completely emptying of the caves.

This paper focuses on the study of bone alterations in fumier deposits from an experimental point of view. Fumiers are characteristic of livestock enclosures in the Mediterranean area used from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age. They originate from the process of burning livestock dung piles to reduce the volume of dung accumulation and to rid these spaces of parasites. Therefore, diverse taphonomic processes take part in the formation of these types of deposits, making it difficult to interpret them, despite numerous multidisciplinary studies. This work specifically focuses on bone burning alterations. Two experiments were set up consisting of bone burning in dung piles. Sheep and goat dung was used with different matrix, texture and humidity features. The sample was made up of defleshed fresh, boiled and dry bone fragments from small and medium-sized species. As seen in previous experiments, the burning time and temperature in the two experiments varied due to these different dung features. The resulting bone sample was analyzed using taphonomic methods. Bone alterations essentially depend on the time and intensity of the dung burning. Bone condition is a secondary determining factor. The color degrees were high and coherent with the degree of dung alteration. Cortical damage was more abundant in fresh and boiled bones than in dry bones. No meaningful differences were identified with regard to bones burned in hearth combustions.

Sheep and goats have been two of the most commonly bred species since the Early Neolithic in European contexts. Much research has been devoted to studying the economic management of these species through culling profile information. In particular, perinatal remains are one of the best indicators of breeding practices at archaeological sites. Nevertheless, remains from this age group, and especially fetal remains, have been largely ignored in archaeozoological studies. In the Neolithic (6th–4th millennium cal. BC) and Bronze Age (2nd millennium cal. BC) faunal assemblages from El Mirador cave (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain), perinatal remains make up 39% of the total ovicaprine assemblage (862 remains). Due to this relative abundance at El Mirador, we studied the remains of animals from this age group, distinguishing fetal remains from neonatal remains by means of anatomical and metric criteria. We found that in El Mirador cave fetal and neonatal remains were present on most levels. The fetal remains exhibit mortality ratios similar to current-day sheep flocks. Spontaneous abortion was probably caused by different non-human causes (diseases, stress, intoxication, etc.). The neonatal remains reflect mortality ratios that could be linked both to unintentional factors (diseases, weak lamb births, etc.) and to the human management of the flock., Financial support was received from research projects CGL2012-38434-C03-03, HAR2011-26193 and SGR2009-01145, 2014SGR-108. We thank the El Mirador team for their work and the anonymous reviewers for their careful reading of our manuscript and their comments and suggestions.

Two main knapping strategies can be used to start bifacial reduction on a lithic cobble or nodule: the alternate strategy, in which first one face is knapped and then the other; and the alternating strategy, in which both faces are removed in the same sequence, interspersing core about-turns between strikes. Flaking reduction of spherical and elliptical blanks (cobbles or nodules) is a common knapping process documented in many archaeological records. Rounded and thick edges require different fracture parameters and give rise to constraints in terms of viable knapping methods. When analysing abandoned cores, it is only possible to see the last strikes, so it is important to know how they were shaped or exploited in the earlier knapping stages in order to understand the entire reduction process. As cortical flakes are the direct evidence of the first reduction phases, we undertook an experimental programme for the purpose of comparing the first flakes generated using the alternate and alternating knapping strategies. We have focused our efforts on identifying and diagnosing distinctive features produced by each strategy in the first or cortical flakes. Our study indicates that several platform attributes can be considered as diagnostic features to differentiate between the alternate and alternating knapping strategies, and that this kind of analysis can be translated to archaeological assemblages.

Anurans, such as frogs and toads, are occasionally very abundant in archaeo-paleontological sites and representing >80% of the remains. These accumulations have been linked mainly to human consumption in the European context, by the preferential selection of body parts and by the presence of burning, and to a lesser extent, cut marks (as in Chalain 3, Baume d’Ogens, Kutna Hora-Denemark). However, there are also records of accumulations attributed to natural catastrophic events (Bois-Roche). This research presents a taphocenosis of microvertebrates of reduced dimensions (7.8 × 2.7 × 2.4 cm) containing 2526 bones, from El Mirador cave of Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain) contemporaneous to an adjacent Chalcolithic burial (ca. 4500 BP). The taxonomical study has identified at least 12 different taxa, which include one urodele, two anurans, seven squamates and two rodents. Tree frogs, Hyla gr. arborea (Hyla molleri), constitutes 84% of the assemblage. Quantitative and qualitative taphonomic analyses are focused on Hyla bones and show the presence of breakage and digestion marks associated with animal predation, albeit in low percentages and in light or moderate degrees. Due to its characteristics, El Mirador accumulation has been identified as a pellet accumulation produced by a medium-large owl (category 2). The nocturnal raptor hunted its preys during a wet period in spring, when the reproduction of the tree frogs occurs, showing a possible evidence of opportunistic predation on a seasonal resource. These findings help to understand the importance of anurans in the trophic chains of Prehistoric times, not only among human groups but also among non-human predators.

The study of cut marks in archaeological contexts is of great importance for understanding the subsistence strategies of past human groups. Many authors have indicated differences to exist between the cut marks produced by different tools and when the same types of tool have been made from different raw materials. The present work examines the cut marks made during the experimental butchering of a red deer (Cervus elaphus) using simple quartz flakes, with those found on fossilised animal remains at the Navalmaíllo Rock Shelter site (Pinilla del Valle, Madrid, Spain) likely to have been made with similar flakes. The methodology followed was that of Domínguez-Rodrigo et al. (2009), which was originally designed to differentiate between cut marks and trampling marks, but which here was tested as a method of distinguishing between the raw materials from which cutting tools were made. The results were also compared to those made with other types of tool/raw material reported in the literature. The present results confirm the above ideas: the marks made experimentally by the quartz flakes are very similar to those seen on the faunal remains from the level F of Navalmaíllo Rock Shelter site, but different to those made by other tools or by flakes made from other materials. They also show, however, that different cut mark morphologies are largely independent of the size of the animal butchered, and of the anatomical element on which they appear., This research was conducted as part of project S2010/BMD-2330 and funded by the I+D activities programme for research groups run by the Education Secretariat of the Madrid Regional Government. The study was also partly funded by the following organisations: Museo Arqueológico Regional de la Comunidad de Madrid, Grupo Mahou and Canal de Isabel II-Gestión. RH, JMV was supported by AGAUR (project no. SGR 2014-899) and by the URV (projects 2014, 2015 and 2016 PFR-URV-B2-17) under the auspices of the CERCA Programme/Generalitat de Catalunya.

La Cansaladeta is a site located in a narrow passage dug out by the Francoli River in the Pre-littoral Catalan range (NE Iberia). The archaeological deposit lies on top of a +45–50 m fluvial terrace, and contains a rich Middle Pleistocene stratigraphic succession in which 10 archaeological layers have been identified. Here, we present the description of the sedimentary succession of the site, the available chronological framework (including TL, TT-OSL, and ESR/U series ages, as well as biostratigraphical information), the characteristics of the lithotechnical and faunal assemblages, as well as the first interpretation of the human occupations at the site. Three main occupation phases have been differentiated. The oldest archaeological layers are embedded in a palaeosol formed on a clayey layer that contains limestone fragments detached from the shelter's wall and roof. During the second phase, low energy fluvial sediments coming from lateral river floods were deposited and sealed the archaeological layers. After a transitional phase, the upper layers appear to be derived from slope sediments. Numerical dating yielded internally consistent dates of 380–400 ka for the sequence. However, the study of the fossil assemblages potentially suggest a tentative early Middle Pleistocene age for the lowermost horizons. The rich technological record is made up of several local raw materials, especially chert but also schist, quartzite, quartz and other minor rocks. Knapping sequences seem to be autochthonous, as all the elements and size-categories of the reduction sequence are present, and refits are common. Techno-typological features observed along the sequence are not very diagnostic, however the lower layers include some Acheulean forms among the large shaped tools, restricted variability among the small retouched tools (mostly denticulates) and a virtually absence of prepared cores. The faunal assemblage is scarce and appears strongly altered. Only the lower layers have provided fruitful information. Although neither combustion areas nor structures related to fire-use have been documented to date, heat damage has been repeatedly recorded on both lithic and faunal remains. This may point to systematic fire use within the archaeological sequence. The data provided by the ongoing excavations at La Cansaladeta provide new insight into the early human settlement history of northeast Iberia to be reconstructed. Combining these data with those coming from the close site of Barranc de la Boella, enable us to better reconstruct the timing, nature and context of early human occupation in the region.

This work attempts to link two primary areas of focus in lithic technology studies today: shape and reduction analyses. We set out to determine whether a correlation could be found between tool shape and reduction stage in order to look for differences between different mobility scenarios and to test the strength of classical typological classifications based on the shape of the retouched segments of tools. Our study was conducted using materials from two culturally different sites, one dating to the Late Upper Paleolithic and the other to the Early Neolithic and our focus was on a single common tool class, endscrapers. Both sites are located in the same region, meaning that the hominins that inhabited them had the same opportunities for procuring locally abundant lithic raw materials. Geometric morphometrics and 3D-based reduction analyses were performed on the tools, and shape and reduction variables were cross-referenced in the search for any existing correlation between the two. Nomadic Late Upper Paleolithic groups exhibit a highly expedient tool management strategy, without shape maintenance, and considerable correlation was found between tool shape and reduction stage. Meanwhile, Early Neolithic groups left behind a curated assemblage, exhibiting shape maintenance and great reduction intensity. In this case, shape was found to be independent of reduction. Finally, we link these behaviors to different mobility strategies and raw-material transport costs, and consider the validity of exclusively typological approaches.

Carnivore consumption has been identified in the Holocene levels of El Mirador Cave (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain). Remains of domestic dogs, wild cats, badgers, and foxes, recovered from Neolithic to Bronze Age levels (sixth millennium to second millennium cal BC), present evidence of human consumption. This evidence includes cut marks, bone breakage, signs of culinary processing and human tooth marks. This is some of the oldest evidence documented either in the Iberian Peninsula or in Europe as a whole, and it is the first time that human tooth marks are used to confirm the human consumption of these carnivores. Dog consumption is sporadic but occurs repeatedly in time, whereas the consumption of small wild carnivores is more limited in time. These practices could be linked with the provision of extra food during periods of shortage and/or with meat of special consideration, especially dog meat.

Several studies have attempted to identify diagnostic criteria for distinguishing between evidence of trampling and cut marks, two common modifications at archaeological sites. These studies have brought to light, with relative precision, the features that identify and differentiate the two types of modifications. However, few studies differentiate these modifications after they have been affected by other factors. Chemical alteration, related to lixiviated sediments, is documented in a relatively high number of archaeological sites. Following the criteria established by Dominguez-Rodrigo et al. (2009), the aim of this paper is to know if diagnostic criteria that would allow modifications resulting from trampling to be differentiated from cut mark modifications are preserved, after undergoing chemical alterations. The results have been applied to unidentified marks located on faunal skeletal remains from the La Mina site, at the Barranc de la Boella (Tarragona, Spain), the surfaces of which have been heavily modified by the lixiviation of the sediments. The data suggest that chemically altered marks lose the diagnostic criteria necessary for correct identification. The unidentified marks discovered on remains from la Boella could not be verified as cut or trampling marks and therefore cannot be considered in future zooarchaeological and taphonomical studies.

This paper describes the evaluation, based on archaeological materials, of the role that resharpening plays in the continuum of stone-tool reduction. We define a multi-evidence-based approach that combines use-wear intensity and location, traces that could be related to hafting and the distribution of mineral residue. By combining these methods, we have observed a minimum resharpening ratio of 52% in the selected end-scraper sample. If one takes into account ethnographically obtained information about end-scraper management, this result is an unexpectedly low value. Dynamics of mobility, technological organization and raw material availability causes high variability in the archaeological visibility and characteristics of lithic remains. Our results are in line with a technology organized wholly or partially on the basis of expediency, in which tools are not curated for more than the time taken to complete the activity or the length of the occupation. Tools that were not exhausted were abandoned at the site, leading to recycling behaviors in periodic site reoccupations.

This paper focuses on a methodological proposal for documenting and describing the wear processes on lithic artefacts based on two main aspects: sequential experiments and systematic SEM (scanning electron microscope) analysis. The procedures followed during experimentation, sample preparation and microscopic observation are presented, and a selection of our experimental results is described in detail and discussed. We argue that sequential experiments allow stone tool wear to be closely monitored during use, and that this information is crucial in understanding microwear formation processes as well as in interpreting the traces observed on archaeological materials.

Usewear analysis is now well established as a powerful means by which to identify the function of stone tools excavated from archaeological sites. However, one of the main issues for usewear analysts is still to provide quantified analyses and interpretations. Several attempts have yielded promising results but have not, as of yet, been widely applied and usewear analyses are still mainly performed using either Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) or Optical Light Microscopy (OLM). The systematic comparison of micrographs from both types of microscope presented here enables us to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each system. Furthermore, it shows beginners or experts using only one type of microscope that these techniques are complementary and should be considered as such. It also represents a significant basis for developing the implementation of quantitative methods for usewear analysis with SEM and OLM.

J.M.L.-G. is a beneficiary of a Beatriu de Pinos postdoctoral fellowship (2011 BP-A00272) from the Generalitat de Catalunya, a grant cofunded by the European Union through the Marie Curie Actions of the 7th Framework Program for R + D. J.I.M. was supported by a predoctoral grant (FI) from AGAUR (Generalitat de Catalunya) cofunded by the European Social Fund. This paper is part of projects CGL2012-38358 and SGR2009-324

Identifying reduction dynamics in prehistoric retouched stone tools is important for understanding technological trends, as well as site function, raw material management and mobility of nomadic hunter-gatherers. In the absence of refits, the final state of the abandoned piece is the only remain that archaeologists have for the study of lithic reduction. The establishment of experimentally tested indexes providing strong correlations between estimated and real reduction are needed. In our work, we propose a new procedure for estimate reduction percentage. In this proposal, data are obtained from high resolution three-dimensional (3D) scans and manual measurements are avoided. The experimental test has been realized using distally retouched tools, the less suitable tools for reduction studies. The correlation levels obtained between the measured data and the estimated data increase substantially the original published from manual measurement, reaching a r 2 value of 0.81 and a correlation of 0.9. The main contribution of the proposed method is the very high correlation obtained in the volume estimation (r 2 = 0.89 and r = 0.94) using the 3D-based measurements. The 3D models of the unretouched and retouched flakes used in this work are free to use and accessible through an online repository.

[spa] Este trabajo presenta la estructura tecnológica observada en los niveles B y Bb (Boreal) de La Cativera, donde se observa una dualidad entre explotaciones laminares simplificadas y una producción de lascas cortas normalizadas. Una nueva datación inédita refuerza la posición cronológica de estos niveles pese a que las estrategias de talla de los mismos difieren significativamente de las documentadas en yacimientos sincrónicos. Los niveles B y Bb coinciden en el tiempo con los conjuntos del Mesolítico de Muescas y Denticulados, sin embargo el análisis tecnológico de la industria lítica lo pone en relación más directa con los conjuntos del Magdaleniense final y/o Epipaleolítico microlaminar propios del Tardiglaciar., [eng] This study presents the technological structure observed in levels B and Bb (Boreal) from La Cativera. A dual technological pattern is observed. For one side simplified blade exploitation is observed and for the other, a normalized short flake production is documented too. A new 14C data corroborates the chronological position of both levels despite showing technical schemes which significantly vary from those of synchronous sites. The B and Bb levels match in time with the so called Notched and Denticulate Mesolithic industries, however the observed knapping patterns present a major affinity with the Late Magdalenian or Epipalaeolithic Late Glacial knapping schemes

DOI: 10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.01.019 URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031018217300500 Filiació URV: SI Memòria El Mirador is a cave in the Sierra de Atapuerca (northern Iberian Peninsula) that contains 27 archaeological layers from the Lateglacial to the Late Holocene. A total of 4436 small-mammal remains have been analysed from these layers, and 19 taxa have been identified (three insectivores, seven chiropters and nine rodents). The palaeoenvironmental reconstruction based on a small-mammal analysis suggests that the entire sequence is dominated by a woodland landscape. Our climatic analysis characterises the climate in terms of an evolution from a cool and arid period in the Pleistocene layers (16,000 to 14,000 cal yr BP), probably related to Heinrich Event 1, to humid conditions and temperatures similar to nowadays in the Holocene layers in general. In MIR23 and MIR22 (7300 to 6800 cal yr BP) we detect an increase in temperature to levels above current values and an important decrease in rainfall. These climatic characteristics could be related to the end of the African Humid Period. Moreover, a short, slightly cooler event is registered in MIR11 (ca. 6300 to 5900 cal yr BP), coinciding with a change in the economic pattern in El Mirador. The results obtained on the basis of small-mammal studies are compared with multiproxy terrestrial data (pollen, charcoal, phytoliths, geochemistry, large mammals) and the Greenland ice-core record, as well as various other core records closer to the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula (MD95-2042, MD99-2331, MD95-2043 and SMP02-3). These comparisons show the agreement of the palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimatic results with all the previous multiproxy and core-record data.

The human impact on the environment in the Holocene has usually been characterized on the basis of palaeobotanical records, but attempts to distinguish the anthropogenic impact from natural events in landscape evolution have been the subject of much debate in recent years. The aim of this paper is to analyse small-mammal diversity and the presence of synanthropic species, whose small size makes them more sensitive to any changes in their environment that may occur. This study has allowed us to characterize palaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental changes, recording small changes whether resulting from a human influence or otherwise. Our object of study is El Mirador cave, which has a sequence with a well-documented human occupation extending from 7200 to 3000 cal. BP. The study has led us to differentiate two phases. In one phase, we can see small changes in diversity related to climatic oscillations from ca. 7200 to 6800 cal. BP, while in the second phase, lasting from ca. 6800 to 3000 cal. BP, the changes in diversity and in the assemblage of synanthropic species are associated with human economic strategies. Moreover, we distinguish which kinds of economic activity (crop and livestock farming) have influenced these changes, because some small-mammal species are influenced, positively or negatively, by environmental changes based on crop farming and animal husbandry. All this information is contrasted with other archaeological proxies, such as the large-mammal and palaeobotanical assemblages from El Mirador cave. Furthermore, this integrative analysis has made it possible to identify the existence of altered environments more generally throughout the Iberian Peninsula from ca. 6000 cal. BP. It additionally confirms the theory of low human occupation intensity in the northern Meseta and in high mountainous areas during the early Neolithic.