Search

The zebrafish species Danio rerio has become one of the major vertebrate model organisms used in biomedical research. However, there are aspects of the model that need to be improved. One of these is the ability to identify individual fish and fish lines by DNA profiling. Although many dinucleotide short tandem repeat (diSTR) markers are available for this and similar purposes, they have certain disadvantages such as an excessive polymerase slippage (“stutter”) that causes difficulties in automated genotyping and cross-laboratory comparisons. Here we report on the development of a 13-plex of tetranucleotide and pentanucleotide STRs (tetraSTRs and pentaSTRs, respectively) that have low stutter. The system uses an inexpensive universal primer labelling system, which can easily be converted to a direct labeling system if desired. This 13-plex was examined in three zebrafish lines (NHGRI-1, kca33Tg, and kca66Tg, originally obtained from ZIRC). The average observed heterozygosity (Ho) and expected heterozygosity (He) in these highly inbred lines were 0.291 and 0.359, respectively, which is very similar to what has been found with diSTRs. The probability of identity (PI) for all fish tested was 2.1 × 10−5 and the PI for siblings (PIsib) was 6.4 × 10−3, as calculated by the Genalex package. Ninety percent of the fish tested were correctly identified with their respective strains. It is also demonstrated that this panel can be used to confirm doubled-haploid cell lines. This multiplex should find multiple uses for improving the accuracy and reproducibility of studies using the zebrafish model.

The successful production of animals and embryonic stem cells using somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) has demonstrated the unmatched nuclear reprogramming capacity of the oocyte and helped prove the degree of plasticity of differentiated cells. The introduction of transcription factors to generate induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) displaced SCNT and, due to its ease of implementation, became the method of choice for cell reprogramming. Nonetheless, iPSC derivation remains inefficient and stochastic. This review article focuses on using the oocyte as a source of reprogramming factors, comparing the SCNT and iPSC mechanisms for remodeling chromatin and acquiring pluripotency.

In this chapter, a particular focus of attention has been given to the use of reproductive technologies for the manipulation of ovarian function and physiology. The implementation of fertility programs based on Ovsynch have been shown to be instrumental for enhancing reproductive performance and controlling calving interval. The adoption of such newly developed reproductive technologies has undoubtedly given proof to be valuable tools for increasing productivity in dairy cattle. In the second part of this chapter, more complex technologies such as cloning through somatic cell nuclear transfer will be discussed. They give the possibility to replicate the genome of highly valuable animals of superior genetics while underlining the limits, costs, and hurdles to be found in the various steps of the entire process. Finally, a vision will be given to the reader on the need to obtain more information on cellular reprogramming and cell plasticity, and on the new technical challenge regarding emerging assisted reproductive techniques, from the study and development of DNA markers for shortening generation interval and selection to the production of functional gametes from embryonic and primordial germ cells into sperm and eggs.

As a renewable source of progenitor and mature cell types, human iPSCs offer promise to replace or restore impaired neural circuits in the injured nervous system. CNS delivery of neural stem cell suspensions lacking pre-connected networks requires their differentiation, maturation, and connectivity in vivo. By contrast, integrating specified neural networks and their support cells with biomaterials allows the advancement of tailored transplantation strategies. Here, we demonstrate encapsulated 3D electrically-active and glutamate-responsive neural ribbon networks using differentiated hiPSC-derived spinal motor neurons and oligodendrocyte progenitor support cells. We apply comprehensive multi-parameter analysis in vitro to interrogate synaptogenesis, myotube innervation, action potential firing and relevant bioinformatics profiles. As proof-of-principle for spinal cord delivery, we inject neural ribbons within the contused injury cavity in rat and qualitatively demonstrate cell viability. Neural ribbons therefore constitute a tunable method to deliver pre-configured, physiologically-matched functional cytoarchitectures to the CNS.

In this issue of Cell, Liu et al. (2018) report the birth of two healthy cloned macaque monkeys using fetal fibroblasts. By artificially enhancing the arsenal of epigenetic modifiers in the oocyte, the authors overcome the earliest roadblocks that take place during somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT).

During somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), egg activation is required to initiate embryonic development. In zebrafish cloning, the reconstructed egg is activated by exposing it to hypotonic water. Egg activation using water-only is not capable of activating the same intracellular calcium release as fertilization which is required for proper embryonic development. Here we test whether the use of soluble sperm extract (SSE) can properly modulate the activation of reconstructed eggs during SCNT. We microinjected SSE from genomic-inactivated zebrafish sperm into unfertilized eggs and reconstructed eggs right after somatic cell nuclear transfer. We also evaluated the most effective approach for SSE microinjection. Microinjection of SSE (with 0.68 mg/ml of protein concentration) into non-activated eggs through the micropyle induced parthenogenetic development beyond the blastula stage, whereas all water-only activated eggs failed to enter the cleavage period. Microinjection of SSE at 1 mg/ml of protein concentration into non-activated reconstructed egg improved the developmental rate of cloned embryos in comparison to non-injected control clones. The cumulative survival time of cloned embryos injected with SSE was significantly longer than reconstructed eggs activated following sham injection (P

Mouse and cell-based studies have shown that macroH2A histone variants predominantly associate with heterochromatin. Functional studies found that macroH2As are involved in gene repression, inhibiting the acquisition of pluripotency and preserving cell differentiation. However, only a few studies have analysed the role of macroH2A during early embryo development. We report the development of transgenic zebrafish lines expressing macroH2A isoforms (mH2A1 and mH2A2) fusion proteins (with GFP) under identified endogenous promoters. We found that mH2A1 and mH2A2 have different spatial and temporal expression patterns during embryonic development. mH2A1 is expressed mostly in the extraembryonic Yolk Syncytial Layer (YSL) starting before shield stage and decreasing once morphogenesis is completed. mH2A2 expression lags behind mH2A1, becoming evident at 24 hpf, within the whole body of the embryo proper. Our ChIP-seq analysis showed that mH2A1 and mH2A2 bind to different DNA regions, changing dramatically after gastrulation. We further analysed RNA-seq data and showed that there is not a general/unspecific repressing function of mH2A1 or mH2A2 associated with heterochromatin but a fine regulation depending on cell types and stage of development. mH2A1 downregulates DNA expression in specific cells and embryo stages and its effect is independent of heterochromatin formation but it is correlated with nucleus quiescence instead. Whereas mH2A2 DNA association correlates with upregulation of differentially expressed genes between 75% epiboly and 24 hpf stages. Our data provide information for underlying molecules that participate in crucial early developmental events, and open new venues to explore mH2A related mechanisms that involve cell proliferation, differentiation, migration and metabolism.

Zebrafish (Danio rerio) is an established animal model to study developmental biology as well as a wide array of human diseases. Here we describe a protocol for somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT). This protocol can be used to introduce genetic modifications in zebrafish and for the study of cell plasticity.

Dogs have been widely used as a preclinical model for human disease. With the successful generation of canine induced pluripotent stem cells (ciPSCs), the biomedical community has a unique opportunity to study therapeutic interventions using autologous stem cells that can benefit dogs and humans. Unlike mice and human pluripotent cells, which are leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF)- and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF)-dependent, respectively, dog iPSCs require both growth factors simultaneously. In an effort to elucidate the role of each factor in the control of ciPSC self-renewal, we performed a series of experiments aiming at understanding the signaling pathways activated by them. We found that bFGF regulates pluripotency by indirectly activating the SMAD2/3 pathway in the presence of feeder cells, exclusively targeting NANOG expression, and inhibiting spontaneous differentiation toward ectoderm and mesoderm. LIF activates the JAK-STAT3 pathway but does not function in the typical manner described in mouse naïve embryonic stem cells. These results show that a unique mechanism for maintenance of pluripotency is present in ciPSC. These findings should be taken into account when establishing stem cell differentiation protocols and may provide more insight into pluripotency regulation in species other than mice and humans.

Zebrafish (Danio rerio) is an established animal model to study developmental biology as well as a wide array of human diseases. Here we describe a protocol for somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT). This protocol can be used to introduce genetic modifications in zebrafish and for the study of cell plasticity.

SUMMARY Placental defects are common in bovine embryos produced using assisted reproductive techniques. A proper understanding of the events leading to inner cell mass (ICM) and trophectoderm (TE) specification could help identify the origins of such developmental failures. We focused on caudal-type homeobox transcription factor 2 (CDX2) since it has a specific role during TE differentiation in mouse embryos. Of all the preimplantation stages analyzed, CDX2 protein was present only at the blastocyst stage. To further understand the roles of CDX2 during bovine development, we depleted CDX2 mRNA; despite a significant loss of detectable protein, embryos were able to form blastocysts at the same rate as controls. Embryos lacking CDX2 did not show abnormalities in the number of TE, ICM, or total cells in the blastocyst. Expression of the developmentally important genes SOX2, POU5F1, and NANOG, or TE markers such as IFN-T and KRT18 were not affected by the reduction in CDX2 levels, nor was the localization of SOX2 and POU5F1 protein. Using a functional barrier assay, we observed that the TE epithelial layer of embryos lacking CDX2 had lost its integrity. Our results thus indicate that CDX2 is not required for TE formation during bovine development; nevertheless, it is necessary for maintaining TE integrity. Mol. Reprod. Dev. 81: 962–970, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Factor in oocyte assists reprogramming Unfertilized eggs contain components that can dedifferentiate other cells that have gone down the path toward a specific cell fate. Gonzalez-Muñoz et al. show that the protein-folding factor ASF1A facilitates this reprogramming event and it acts at a particular phase of germ cell division termed metaphase II. ASF1A helps turn differentiated cells such as human adult dermal fibroblasts into undifferentiated pluripotent stem cells. Science , this issue p. 822

To better understand the basis of variation in cellular reprogramming, we performed experiments with two primary objectives: first, to determine the degree of difference, if any, in reprogramming efficiency among cells lines of a similar type after accounting for technical variables, and second, to compare the efficiency of conversion of multiple similar cell lines to two separate reprogramming regimens-induced neurons and induced skeletal muscle. Using two reprogramming regimens, it could be determined whether converted cells are likely derived from a distinct subpopulation that is generally susceptible to reprogramming or are derived from cells with an independent capacity for respecification to a given phenotype. Our results indicated that when technical components of the reprogramming regimen were accounted for, reprogramming efficiency was reproducible within a given primary fibroblast line but varied dramatically between lines. The disparity in reprogramming efficiency between lines was of sufficient magnitude to account for some discrepancies in published results. We also found that the efficiency of conversion to one phenotype was not predictive of reprogramming to the alternate phenotype, suggesting that the capacity for reprogramming does not arise from a specific subpopulation with a generally "weak grip" on cellular identity. Our findings suggest that parallel testing of multiple cell lines from several sources may be needed to accurately assess the efficiency of direct reprogramming procedures, and that testing a larger number of fibroblast lines--even lines with similar origins--is likely the most direct means of improving reprogramming efficiency.

The realization of personalized medicine through human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology can be advanced by transcriptomics, epigenomics, and bioinformatics that inform on genetic pathways directing tissue development and function. When possible, population diversity should be included in new studies as resources become available. Previously we derived replicate iPSC lines of African American, Hispanic-Latino and Asian self-designated ethnically diverse (ED) origins with normal karyotype, verified teratoma formation, pluripotency biomarkers, and tri-lineage in vitro commitment. Here we perform bioinformatics of RNA-Seq and ChIP-seq pluripotency data sets for two replicate Asian and Hispanic-Latino ED-iPSC lines that reveal differences in generation of contractile cardiomyocytes but similar and robust differentiation to multiple neural, pancreatic, and smooth muscle cell types. We identify shared and distinct genes and contributing pathways in the replicate ED-iPSC lines to enhance our ability to understand how reprogramming to iPSC impacts genes and pathways contributing to cardiomyocyte contractility potential.

Parthenogenetic embryonic stem cells (P-ESCs) offer an alternative source of pluripotent cells, which hold great promise for autologous transplantation and regenerative medicine. P-ESCs have been successfully derived from blastocysts of several mammalian species. However, compared with biparental embryonic stem cells (B-ESCs), P-ESCs are limited in their ability to fully differentiate into all 3 germ layers. For example, it has been observed that there is a differentiation bias toward ectoderm derivatives at the expense of endoderm and mesoderm derivatives-muscle in particular-in chimeric embryos, teratomas, and embryoid bodies. In the present study we found that H19 expression was highly upregulated in P-ESCs with more than 6-fold overexpression compared with B-ESCs. Thus, we hypothesized that manipulation of the H19 gene in P-ESCs would alleviate their limitations and allow them to function like B-ESCs. To test this hypothesis we employed a small hairpin RNA approach to reduce the amount of H19 transcripts in mouse P-ESCs. We found that downregulation of H19 led to an increase of mesoderm-derived muscle and endoderm in P-ESCs teratomas similar to that observed in B-ESCs teratomas. This phenomenon coincided with upregulation of mesoderm-specific genes such as Myf5, Myf6, and MyoD. Moreover, H19 downregulated P-ESCs differentiated into a higher percentage of beating cardiomyocytes compared with control P-ESCs. Collectively, these results suggest that P-ESCs are amenable to molecular modifications that bring them functionally closer to true ESCs.

For more than thirty years, the dog has been used as a model for human diseases. Despite efforts made to develop canine embryonic stem cells, success has been elusive. Here, we report the generation of canine induced pluripotent stem cells (ciPSCs) from canine adult fibroblasts, which we accomplished by introducing human OCT4, SOX2, c-MYC, and KLF4. The ciPSCs expressed critical pluripotency markers and showed evidence of silencing the viral vectors and normal karyotypes. Microsatellite analysis indicated that the ciPSCs showed the same profile as the donor fibroblasts but differed from cells taken from other dogs. Under culture conditions favoring differentiation, the ciPSCs could form cell derivatives from the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. Further, the ciPSCs required leukemia inhibitory factor and basic fibroblast growth factor to survive, proliferate, and maintain pluripotency. Our results demonstrate an efficient method for deriving canine pluripotent stem cells, providing a powerful platform for the development of new models for regenerative medicine, as well as for the study of the onset, progression, and treatment of human and canine genetic diseases.

Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) have radically advanced the field of regenerative medicine by making possible the production of patient-specific pluripotent stem cells from adult individuals. While cell differentiation protocols have been successfully developed, and animal models of human disease have proved that these cells have the potential to treat human diseases and conditions produced as a consequence of aging, degeneration, injury, and birth defects, logistical issues still remain unsolved and hamper the possibility of testing these cells in human clinical trials. Among them is the widely spread use of animal products for the generation and culture of iPSCs. We report here a xeno-free iPSC generation system that addresses all the steps of iPSCs production including the isolation and culture of adult skin fibroblasts, and iPSCs generation, expansion, and maintenance. iPSCs generated with a polycistronic lentiviral vector under xeno-free conditions displayed markers of pluripotency and gave rise to embryoid bodies (EBs) displaying indicators of the 3 primary germ layers. Xeno-free iPSCs injected into nude mice produced classic teratomas, and teratoma explants cultured under conditions favoring fibroblastic cells gave rise to cells morphologically indistinguishable from input cells. Protocols here described will facilitate the implementation of new cellular therapies for preclinical and clinical studies, potentially reducing the regulatory burden without compromising the differentiation potential of the cells.

Rudolf Jaenisch explains how the quest for an answer to the simple question of viral tropism in the mouse lead him to a life-long career in regulation of gene expression in the early embryo and pluripotent stem cells. He shares his experience about what it takes to develop into a successful scientist; expresses his concern about the challenges facing young scientists entering the field - not all of them funding related - and candidly offers some solid tips on opportunities to take advantage of and mistakes to avoid. Being mindful of when to let go of a project, and staying focused on what is important, are probably obvious tips, but they need to be re-stated, since they also appear to be the most difficult to accomplish. Dr. Jaenisch continues to work tirelessly on the problem of epigenetic control in the early embryo and its connection with stem cells.

The success of nuclear reprogramming following somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) is thought to depend on factors present in the egg. Little is known about the role - if any - played by the somatic cell type on the outcome of the procedure. We tested whether cells of different lineages might have different capacities for reprogramming following SCNT, comparing cells isolated from five different tissues of transgenic zebrafish for their developmental potential when used as SCNT donor cells. We used transgenic zebrafish lines expressing green fluorescence protein under an endogenous tissue-specific promoter: HGn62A-skin, HGn28A-skin, HGn8E-heart, HG21C-fin and notochord and HGn30A-hatch gland. We analyzed the efficiency of cloning, as measured by reconstructed embryos that developed up to the hatched-fry stage. Specifically, donor cells of fin and notochord origin yielded the best rate of cloned fish production. All of the other cell types used were capable of producing cloned fish, albeit with significantly lower efficiency. These results indicate that the type of zebrafish cells used for SCNT can influence the outcome of the procedure. Future epigenetic analysis of these cells will help determine specific chromatin profiles in somatic cells that have an impact on nuclear reprogramming procedures.

Oct4 and Nanog are crucial for maintaining pluripotency in embryonic stem (ES) cells and early-stage embryos. In the present study, the status of DNA methylation and of histone modifications in the regulatory regions of Oct4 and Nanog in rhesus nuclear transfer-derived ES (ntES) cells was compared with in vitro fertilized embryo-derived ES (IVFES) cell counterparts. Dynamic changes in DNA methylation during differentiation into neural lineage were also monitored and correlated with mRNA abundance and protein levels of both genes. In ntES cells Oct4 exhibited mono-allelic methylation along with relatively lower mRNA levels, and its transcription was seen predominantly from the unmethylated allele. In contrast, in IVFES cells Oct4 was hypomethylated on both alleles and had relatively higher transcript levels, suggesting incomplete reprogramming of DNA methylation on the Oct4 gene following somatic cell nuclear transfer. During neuronal differentiation, Oct4 underwent biallelic methylation and reduced amounts of Oct4 mRNA were detected in both types of ES cells. Analysis of Nanog regulatory regions revealed that both alleles were hypomethylated and similar levels of Nanog transcripts were expressed in ntES cells and IVFES cells. During neuronal differentiation both alleles were methylated and reduced amounts of Nanog mRNA were detected. Other epigenetic modifications including histone 3 lysine 4, 9, and 27 trimethylation (H3K4me3, H3K9me3, and H3K27me3) showed similar patterns around the regulatory regions of Oct4 and Nanog in both kinds of ES cells. During neural differentiation, dramatic enrichment of H3K27me3 and H3K9me3 (repressive marks) was observed on Oct4 and Nanog regulatory regions. Differentiation of ntES and IVFES cells correlated with the silencing of Oct4 and Nanog, reactivation of the neural marker genes Pax6, N-Oct3, and Olig2, and dynamic changes in histone modifications in the upstream regions of Pax6 and N-Oct3. In short, although ES cells derived from somatic cell nuclear transfer showed a different epigenetic status in the Oct4 regulatory region than the IVF-derived counterparts, based on the parameters tested, the neural differentiation potential of ntES and IVFES cells is equivalent.

Interspecies somatic cell nuclear transfer (iSCNT) has the potential to become a useful tool to address basic questions about the nucleus-cytoplasm interactions between species. It has also been proposed as an alternative for the preservation of endangered species and to derive autologous embryonic stem cells. Using chimpanzee/ bovine iSCNT as our experimental model we studied the early epigenetic events that take place soon after cell fusion until embryonic genome activation (EGA). Our analysis suggested partial EGA in iSCNT embryos at the eight-cell stage, as indicated by Br-UTP incorporation and expression of chimpanzee embryonic genes. Oct4, Stella, Crabp1, CCNE2, CXCL6, PTGER4, H2AFZ, c-MYC, KLF4, and GAPDH transcripts were expressed, while Nanog, Glut1, DSC2, USF2, Adrbk1, and Lin28 failed to be activated. Although development of iSCNT embryos did not progress beyond the 8- to 16-cell stage, chromatin remodeling events, monitored by H3K27 methylation, H4K5 acetylation, and global DNA methylation, were similar in both intra- and interspecies SCNT embryos. However, bisulfite sequencing indicated incomplete demethylation of Oct4 and Nanog promoters in eight-cell iSCNT embryos. ATP production levels were significantly higher in bovine SCNT embryos than in iSCNT embryos, TUNEL assays did not reveal any difference in the apoptotic status of the nuclei from both types of embryos. Collectively, our results suggest that bovine ooplasm can partially remodel chimpanzee somatic nuclei, and provides insight into some of the current barriers iSCNT must overcome if further embryonic development is to be expected.

We describe the characterization of maturation-promoting factor (MPF) in zebrafish eggs and used different defined conditions to maintain its activity in vitro. MPF activity levels are high in freshly ovulated mature eggs and decline rapidly within 5 min after either fertilization or parthenogenetic activation. The MPF activity of eggs matured in vitro declines faster when the eggs are incubated in Hank's culture medium supplemented with 0.5% BSA (H-BSA) than when incubated in Chinook salmon ovarian fluid (CSOF). MPF activity in nonactivated, aged eggs remains high in H-BSA supplemented with 75 microM MG132 or 10 mM caffeine, but neither MG132 nor caffeine can sustain high MPF activity in activated eggs. MG132-treated eggs showed delayed completion of metaphase and extrusion of the second polar body. Nuclear staining of the activated eggs confirmed the correlation between their cell cycle stage and MPF activity at each time point. An embryotoxic effect was found when matured eggs were held in 100 microM of MG132 or 20 mM caffeine for 1 h. Calcium-depleted medium and 1,2-bis(o-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid also showed detrimental effects on the embryos. Conversely, nonactivated, aged matured eggs maintained high MPF activity and developmental potential when CSOF was used as a holding medium.

Purified plasma derived human albumin has been available as a therapeutic product since World War II. However, cost effective recombinant production of albumin has been challenging due to the amount needed and the complex folding pattern of the protein. In an effort to provide an abundant source of recombinant albumin, a herd of transgenic cows expressing high levels of rhA in their milk was generated. Expression cassettes efficiently targeting the secretion of human albumin to the lactating mammary gland were obtained and tested in transgenic mice. A high expressing transgene was transfected in primary bovine cell lines to produce karyoplasts for use in a somatic cell nuclear transfer program. Founder transgenic cows were produced from four independent cell lines. Expression levels varying from 1-2 g/l to more than 40 g/l of correctly folded albumin were observed. The animals expressing the highest levels of rhA exhibited shortened lactation whereas cows yielding 1-2 g/l had normal milk production. This herd of transgenic cattle is an easily scalable and well characterized source of rhA for biomedical uses.

Epigenetic aberrancies likely preclude correct and complete nuclear reprogramming following somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), and may underlie the observed reduced viability of cloned embryos. In the present study, we tested the effects of the histone deacetylase inhibitor (HDACi), trichostatin A (TSA), on development and histone acetylation of cloned bovine preimplantation embryos. Our results indicated that treating activated reconstructed SCNT embryos with 50 nM TSA for 13 h produced eight-cell embryos with levels of acetylation of histone H4 at lysine 5 (AcH4K5) similar to fertilized counterparts and significantly greater than in control NT embryos (p0.005). Further, TSA treatment resulted in SCNT embryos with preimplantation developmental potential similar to fertilized counterparts, as no difference was observed in cleavage and blastocyst rates or in blastocyst total cell number (p0.05). Measurement of eight selected developmentally important genes in single blastocysts showed a similar expression profile among the three treatment groups, with the exception of Nanog, Cdx2, and DNMT3b, whose expression levels were higher in TSA-treated NT than in in vitro fertilized (IVF) embryos. Data presented herein demonstrate that TSA can improve at least one epigenetic mark in early cloned bovine embryos. However, evaluation of development to full-term is necessary to ascertain whether this effect reflects a true increase in developmental potential.

Objective To report on the development of human parthenogenetic blastocysts and an in vitro attachment that was generated from noninseminated cryopreserved human oocytes for the first time. Design Prospective study. Setting Department of reproductive medicine in a medical institute in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Patient(s) Five healthy fertile donors. Intervention(s) Artificial activation of noninseminated cryopreserved human oocytes after thawing, parthenote culture, and their in vitro attachment. Main Outcome Measure(s) Survival rate, activation rate, cleavage rate, and blastocyst formation. Result(s) Thirty-six of 38 cryopreserved noninseminated oocytes survived after thawing (survival rate, 94.7%). Thirty-one of 36 oocytes showed one pronucleus (activation rate, 86.1%). Thirty of 31 cleaved (cleavage rate, 96.8%). Five of 30 showed cavitation (blastocyst rate, 16.7%). Conclusion(s) Noninseminated cryopreserved human oocytes showed a high survival rate after thawing. They responded very satisfactorily to artificial activation, which was followed by a high rate of parthenogenetic embryos, which can develop into blastocysts. In the future, these could be a new source for development of human parthenogenetic stem cells.

Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) has been a well-known technique for decades and widely applied to generate identical animals, including ones with genetic alterations. The system has been demonstrated successfully in zebrafish. The elaborated requirements of SCNT, however, limit reproducibility of the established model to a few groups in zebrafish research community. In this chapter, we meticulously outline each step of the published protocol as well as preparations of equipments and reagents used in zebrafish SCNT. All describable detailed-tips are elaborated in texts and figures.

Accessibility of human oocytes for research poses a serious ethical challenge to society. This fact categorically holds true when pursuing some of the most promising areas of research, such as somatic cell nuclear transfer and embryonic stem cell studies. One approach to overcoming this limitation is to use an oocyte from one species and a somatic cell from another. Recently, several attempts to capture the promises of this approach have met with varying success, ranging from establishing human embryonic stem cells to obtaining live offspring in animals. This review focuses on the challenges and opportunities presented by the formidable task of overcoming biological differences among species.

The human genome with all its ethnic variations contributes to differences in human development, aging, disease, repair and response to medical treatments and is an exciting area of research and clinical study. The availability of well-characterized ethnically diverse stem cell lines is limited and has not kept pace with other advances in stem cell research. Here we derived xenofree ethnically diverse-human induced pluripotent stem cell (ED-iPSC) lines from fibroblasts obtained from individuals of African American, Hispanic-Latino, Asian and Caucasian ethnic origin and have characterized the lines under a uniform platform for comparative analysis. Derived ED-iPSC lines are low passage number and evaluated in vivo by teratoma formation and in vitro by high throughput microarray analysis of EB formation and early differentiation for tri-lineage commitment to endoderm, ectoderm and mesoderm. These new xenofree ED-iPSC lines represent a well-characterized valuable resource with potential for use in future research in drug discovery or clinical investigations.

The success of somatic cell nuclear transfer in mammals has opened the possibility to dedifferentiate cells from a patient into embryonic stem cells and in doing so, potentially generate all different cells and tissues of the human body. These cells could be later transplanted to the same patient without immune rejection. Whereas this principle has been demonstrated in laboratory animals, it is yet to be shown to work in primates. Herein we discuss the probability of somatic cell nuclear transfer becoming a real therapeutic alternative as well as the potential emerging dedifferentiation approaches that may eventually replace it.

Fluorescent live imaging of cells and embryos at subcellular resolution poses significant challenges for biologists due to morbidity and mortality ensuing from phototoxicity. Here we report the use of a spinning-disk confocal microscope to image mouse and bovine preimplantation embryos without impairing their developmental potential. We also present data indicating that this imaging technique does not affect the functionality of subcellular components as assessed by reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, caspase activity, and DNA integrity. Spinning-disk confocal microscopy was also useful in determining cell number and allocation in transgenic bovine blastocysts. We conclude that this imaging method is suitable for monitoring preimplantation embryos.

The identification of genes and deduced pathways from the mature human oocyte can help us better understand oogenesis, folliculogenesis, fertilization, and embryonic development. Human metaphase II oocytes were used within minutes after removal from the ovary, and its transcriptome was compared with a reference sample consisting of a mixture of total RNA from 10 different normal human tissues not including the ovary. RNA amplification was performed by using a unique protocol. Affymetrix Human Genome U133 Plus 2.0 GeneChip arrays were used for hybridizations. Compared with reference samples, there were 5,331 transcripts significantly up-regulated and 7,074 transcripts significantly down-regulated in the oocyte. Of the oocyte up-regulated probe sets, 1,430 have unknown function. A core group of 66 transcripts was identified by intersecting significantly up-regulated genes of the human oocyte with those from the mouse oocyte and from human and mouse embryonic stem cells. GeneChip array results were validated using RT-PCR in a selected set of oocyte-specific genes. Within the up-regulated probe sets, the top overrepresented categories were related to RNA and protein metabolism, followed by DNA metabolism and chromatin modification. This report provides a comprehensive expression baseline of genes expressed in in vivo matured human oocytes. Further understanding of the biological role of these genes may expand our knowledge on meiotic cell cycle, fertilization, chromatin remodeling, lineage commitment, pluripotency, tissue regeneration, and morphogenesis.

Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) technology has recently been used to generate animals with a common genetic composition. In this study, we report the derivation of a pluripotent embryonic stem (ES) cell line (SCNT-hES-1) from a cloned human blastocyst. The SCNT-hES-1 cells displayed typical ES cell morphology and cell surface markers and were capable of differentiating into embryoid bodies in vitro and of forming teratomas in vivo containing cell derivatives from all three embryonic germ layers in severe combined immunodeficient mice. After continuous proliferation for more than 70 passages, SCNT-hES-1 cells maintained normal karyotypes and were genetically identical to the somatic nuclear donor cells. Although we cannot completely exclude the possibility that the cells had a parthenogenetic origin, imprinting analyses support a SCNT origin of the derived human ES cells.

Unfertilized oocytes have the intrinsic capacity to remodel sperm and the nuclei of somatic cells. The discoveries that cells can change their phenotype from differentiated to embryonic state using oocytes or specific transcription factors have been recognized as two major breakthroughs in the biomedical field. Here, we show that ASF1A, a histone-remodeling chaperone specifically enriched in the metaphase II human oocyte, is necessary for reprogramming of human adult dermal fibroblasts (hADFs) into undifferentiated induced pluripotent stem cell. We also show that overexpression of just ASF1A and OCT4 in hADFs exposed to the oocyte-specific paracrine growth factor GDF9 can reprogram hADFs into pluripotent cells. Our Report underscores the importance of studying the unfertilized MII oocyte as a means to understand the molecular pathways governing somatic cell reprogramming.

To date, efforts to establish pluripotent embryonic stem cells from bovine embryos have failed. The lack of reliable pluripotency markers is an important drawback when attempting to derive these cells. This study aimed to identify genes upregulated in the inner cell mass (ICM) of bovine blastocysts, and we selected SOX2 for further characterization. Spatial and temporal localization of the SOX2 protein revealed that its expression starts at the 16-cell stage and then becomes restricted to the ICMs of blastocysts. To study the role of SOX2 during the early development of bovine embryos, we designed siRNA to target SOX2. We began by injecting this siRNA into zygotes; the rate at which blastocysts developed declined compared to noninjected or scramble-injected controls. When only one blastomere of a two-cell embryo was injected with SOX2 siRNA, we observed development rates similar to those of controls. Daughter cells of the injected blastomere were tracked by TRITC fluorescence and found to contribute to the ICM, as select cells also lacked SOX2. Gene expression analysis revealed a decrease in SOX2 and NANOG gene expression in siRNA-injected embryos, but OCT4 expression remained unchanged. We conclude that SOX2 localizes exclusively in the ICM of bovine blastocysts, and its downregulation negatively impacts preimplantation development; however, it is still unclear as to why downregulation of SOX2 in one cell of a two-cell embryo does not affect the composition of the ICM.

Human therapeutic cloning requires the reprogramming of a somatic cell by nuclear transfer to generate autologous totipotent stem cells. We have parthenogenetically activated 22 human eggs and also performed nuclear transfer in 17 metaphase II eggs. Cleavage beyond the eight-cell stage was obtained in the parthenogenetic-activated eggs, and blastocoele cavities were observed in six. Three somatic cell-derived embryos developed beyond the pronuclear stage up to the six-cell stage. The ability to create autologous embryos represents the first step towards generating immune-compatible stem cells that could be used to overcome the problem of immune rejection in regenerative medicine.

In a famous Science editorial entitled "Will Society Be Prepared?", Nobel Laureate Marshall Nirenberg envisioned the possibility that cells would be "programmed with synthetic messages within 25 years" (Nirenberg, 1967). Whether Nirenberg held messenger RNAs capable as such of (re)programming cells, is not known, but clearly he considered them as instrumental to achieve (re)programming...

The potential of cloning depends in part on whether the procedure can reverse cellular aging and restore somatic cells to a phenotypically youthful state. Here, we report the birth of six healthy cloned calves derived from populations of senescent donor somatic cells. Nuclear transfer extended the replicative life-span of senescent cells (zero to four population doublings remaining) to greater than 90 population doublings. Early population doubling level complementary DNA-1 (EPC-1, an age-dependent gene) expression in cells from the cloned animals was 3.5- to 5-fold higher than that in cells from age-matched (5 to 10 months old) controls. Southern blot and flow cytometric analyses indicated that the telomeres were also extended beyond those of newborn (

Technical modifications of existing methods lead to a somatic cell nuclear transfer method in the zebrafish, which yields adult cloned fish with healthy offspring that carry donor traits. We developed a method for somatic cell nuclear transfer in zebrafish using laser-ablated metaphase II eggs as recipients, the micropyle for transfer of the nucleus and an egg activation protocol after nuclear reconstruction. We produced clones from cells of both embryonic and adult origins, although the latter did not give rise to live adult clones.

The successful application of nuclear transfer techniques to a range of mammalian species has brought the possibility of human therapeutic cloning significantly closer. The objective of therapeutic cloning is to produce pluripotent stem cells that carry the nuclear genome of the patient and then induce them to differentiate into replacement cells, such as cardiomyocytes to replace damaged heart tissue or insulin-producing beta cells for patients with diabetes. Although cloning would eliminate the critical problem of immune incompatibility, there is also the task of reconstituting the cells into more complex tissues and organs in vitro. In the review, we discuss recent progress that has been made in this field as well as the inherent dangers and scientific challenges that remain before these techniques can be used to harness genetically matched cells and tissues for human transplantation.

Parkinson's disease symptoms can be improved by transplanting fetal dopamine cells into the putamen of parkinsonian patients. Because the supply of human donor tissue is limited and variable, an alternative and genetically modifiable non-human source of tissue would be valuable. We have generated cloned transgenic bovine embryos, 42% of which developed beyond 40 days. Dopamine cells collected from the ventral mesencephalon of the cloned fetuses 42 to 50 days post-conception survived transplantation into immunosuppressed parkinsonian rats and cells from cloned and wild-type embryos improved motor performance. Somatic cell cloning can efficiently produce transgenic animal tissue for treating parkinsonism.

Research on cloning animals, again, came to the forefront of public attention in 1997. Most scientists involved in biomedical and agricultural research have emphasized the benefits, of which there are many, of cloning to the public. Basic studies on nuclear transfer have and will continue to contribute to our understanding of how genomic activation and cell cycle synchrony affect nuclear reprogramming and cloning efficiencies, specifically. Also, more basic information on actual mechanisms and specific factors in the oocyte causing nuclear reprogramming is forthcoming. As new molecular approaches in functional genomics are combined with nuclear transfer experiments, new genes involved in nuclear reprogramming will be found. The commercial potentials of products stemming from discoveries in cloning are vast. Cloning will be a more efficient, faster and more useful way of making transgenic fetuses for cell therapies, adult animals for protein production and organs for xenotransplantation. Clearly there are new opportunities in animal cloning technology that will produce many benefits to society.

To date, efforts to establish pluripotent embryonic stem cells from bovine embryos have failed. The lack of reliable pluripotency markers is an important drawback when attempting to derive these cells. This study aimed to identify genes upregulated in the inner cell mass (ICM) of bovine blastocysts, and we selected SOX2 for further characterization. Spatial and temporal localization of the SOX2 protein revealed that its expression starts at the 16-cell stage and then becomes restricted to the ICMs of blastocysts. To study the role of SOX2 during the early development of bovine embryos, we designed siRNA to target SOX2. We began by injecting this siRNA into zygotes; the rate at which blastocysts developed declined compared to noninjected or scramble-injected controls. When only one blastomere of a two-cell embryo was injected with SOX2 siRNA, we observed development rates similar to those of controls. Daughter cells of the injected blastomere were tracked by TRITC fluorescence and found to contribute to the ICM, as select cells also lacked SOX2. Gene expression analysis revealed a decrease in SOX2 and NANOG gene expression in siRNA-injected embryos, but OCT4 expression remained unchanged. We conclude that SOX2 localizes exclusively in the ICM of bovine blastocysts, and its downregulation negatively impacts preimplantation development; however, it is still unclear as to why downregulation of SOX2 in one cell of a two-cell embryo does not affect the composition of the ICM.