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Purpose: This review aimed to determine (1) performance and training characteristics such as training intensity distribution (TID), volume, periodization, and methods in highly trained/elite distance runners and (2) differences in training volume and TID between event distances in highly trained/elite distance runners. Methods: A systematic review of the literature was carried out using the PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. Results: Ten articles met the inclusion criteria. Highly trained/elite distance runners typically follow a pyramidal TID approach, characterized by a decreasing training volume from zone 1 (at or below speed at first ventilatory/lactate threshold [LT]) to zone 2 (between speeds associated with either both ventilatory thresholds or 2 and 4 mmol·L−1 LTs [vLT1 and vLT2, respectively]) and zone 3 (speed above vVT2/vLT2). Continuous-tempo runs or interval training sessions at vLT2 in zone 2 (ie, medium and long aerobic intervals) and those in zone 3 (ie, anaerobic or short-interval training) were both used at least once per week each in elite runners, and they were used to increase the number of either vLT2 or z3 sessions to adopt either a pyramidal or a polarized approach, respectively. More pyramidal- and polarized-oriented approaches were used by marathoners and 1500-m runners, respectively. Conclusions: Highly trained and elite middle- and long-distance runners are encouraged to adopt a traditional periodization pattern with a hard day–easy day basis, consisting in a shift from a pyramidal TID used during the preparatory and precompetitive periods toward a polarized TID during the competitive period.

This study aimed to address the effects of increased longitudinal bending stiffness (LBS) on running economy (RE) and running biomechanics. A systematic search on four electronic databases (Pubmed, WOS, Medline and Scopus) was conducted on 26 May 2021. Twelve studies met the inclusion criteria and were included. Standardised mean difference with 95% confidence intervals (CI) between footwear with increased LBS vs. non-increased LBS conditions and effect sizes were calculated. To assess the potential effects of moderator variables (type and length plate, increased LBS, shoe mass and running speed) on the main outcome variable (i.e. RE), subgroup analyses were performed. Increased LBS improved RE (SMD = -0.43 [95% CI -0.58, -0.28], Z = 5.60, p < 0.001) compared to non-increased LBS. Significant increases of stride length (SMD = 0.29 [95% CI 0.10, 0.49], Z = 2.93, p = 0.003) and contact time (SMD = 0.17 [95% CI 0.03, 0.31], Z = 2.32, p = 0.02) were found when LBS was increased. RE improved to a greater degree at higher running speeds with footwear with increased LBS. RE improved 3.45% with curve plate compared to no-plate condition without improvements with flat plate shoes. When shoe mass was matched between footwear with increased LBS vs. non-increased LBS conditions, RE improved (3.15%). However, when shoe mass was not controlled (experimental condition with ∼35 grams extra), a significant small improvement was found. These RE improvements appear along with an increase of stride length and contact time. Shoe mass, type of plate (flat or curve) and running speed should be taken into consideration when designing a shoe aimed at improving long-distance running performance.

The underwater phase is perhaps the most important phase of the swimming start. To improve performance during the underwater phase, it is necessary to improve our understanding of the key variables affecting this phase. The main aim of this study was to identify key kinematic variables that are associated with the performance of an underwater glide of a swimming start, when performed at streamlined position without underwater undulatory swimming. Sixteen experienced swimmers performed 48 track starts and 20 kinematic variables were analysed. A multiple linear regression analysis was carried out to explore the relationship between glide performance (defined as glide distance) and the variables that may affect glide performance. Four variables in the regression model were identified as good predictors of glide distance: flight distance; average velocity between 5 m and 10 m; and maximum depth of the hip. The results of the present study help improve our understanding of underwater glide optimisation and could potentially facilitate improvement of overall start performance. pre-print 153 KB

A well-planned periodized approach allows swimmers to achieve peak performance at the major national and international competitions. Purpose: To identify the main characteristics of endurance training for highly trained swimmers described by the training intensity distribution (TID), volume, and periodization models. Methods: The electronic databases Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science were searched using a comprehensive list of relevant terms. Studies that investigated the effect of the periodization of training in swimming, with the training load (volume, TID) and periodization reported, were included in the systematic review. Results: A total of 3487 studies were identified, and after removal of duplicates and elimination of papers based on title and abstract screening, 17 articles remained. A further 8 articles were excluded after full text review, leaving a final total of 9 studies in the systematic review. The evidence levels were 1b for intervention studies (n = 3) and 2b for (observational) retrospective studies (n = 6). The sprint swimmers typically followed a polarized and threshold TID, the middle-distance swimmers followed a threshold and pyramidal TID, and the long-distance swimmers primarily followed a pyramidal TID. The periodization model identified in the majority of studies selected is characterized by wave-like cycles in units like mesocycles to promote physiological adaptations and skill acquisition. Conclusions: Highly trained swimmers follow a training volume and TID based on their primary event. There is a need for further experimental studies on the effects of block and reverse periodization models on swimming performance. Although observational studies of training have limited evidence, it is unclear whether a different training/periodization approach would yield better results.

A breakpoint in a portable near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) derived deoxygenated haemoglobin (deoxy[Hb]) signal during an incremental VO2max running test has been associated with the second ventilatory threshold (VT2) in healthy participants. Thus, the aim was to examine the association between this breakpoint (NIRS) and VT2 in well-trained runners. Gas exchange and NIRS data were collected during an incremental VO2max running test for 10 well-trained runners. The breakpoint calculated in oxygen saturation (StO2) and the VT2 were determined and compared in terms relative to %VO2max, absolute speed, VO2, and maximum heart rate (HRmax). There were no significant differences (p>0.05) between the breakpoint in StO2 and VT2 relative to %VO2max (87.00±6.14 and 88.28 ± 3.98 %), absolute speed (15.70±1.42 and 16.10±1.66 km·h−1), VO2 (53.71±15.17 and 54.66±15.57 ml·kg−1·min−1), and%HRmax (90.90±4.17 and 91.84±3.70%). There were large and significant correlations between instruments relative to%VO2max (r=0.68, p

The aim of this study was to assess the effect of recovery period during long interval training (IT) on mechanical, physiological, perceptive, and neuromuscular parameters. Six men and six women trained runners (23.82 ± 7.83years; 56.27 ± 8.95kg; 167.55 ± 9.77cm) performed three treadmill interval sessions (4x4min) at 1% incline with 1min, 2min or self-selected recovery periods (SSrecovery) at highest possible average running speed. Velocity and distance increased by 2.5% (p

Swimming performance achieved in 50-m, 100-m and 200-m events in each swimming stroke could have an influence in the final performance in individual medley events. We sought to quantify the relative contributions of performance in individual stroke events to top-10 world ranked IM competition performance. We examined competition results of top-10 world ranked IM swimmers (90 males and 90 females) between 2012 and 2018. A general linear model was developed to examine association between the 200m- and 400m-IM and predictor variables of competition performance in other 50-m, 100-m and 200-m events. The main predictor variable for 200-mIM medalist status was having scored more than 900 FINA points in at least one 100-m event. Scoring more than 800 FINA points in at least two 200-mIM events, and more than 900 FINA points in at least one 100-m event, was important for success in the 400-mIM. Top-10 world ranked 200-mIM and 400-mIM swimmers require a world class standard in one or more individual stroke event(s).

The aim of this study was to determine the influence of running wide on bends regarding intermediate changes of position, dispersion of athletes, and speed relative to season best (SB) between medalists and non-medalists in men’s and women’s 800 m championship finals. Extra distance covered on bends was measured using official videos. The total distance run was calculated and described as the minimum calculable distance. Theoretical mean speeds, theoretical finishing times and theoretical finishing positions were calculated. In addition, intermediate and total changes of position (on bends and straights) and dispersion between athletes in each 100-m segment were calculated. Finishing times and segment times were calculated relative to SB. Theoretical finishing times were faster than official finishing times (p

Objetivo: Analizar la influencia de diferentes intensidades de nado en los sectores de ciclismo y carrera a pie y en el rendimiento final del triatlón sprint. Métodos: Siete triatletas sub23 y Absolutos (altura de 1,74 ± 0,04 m, peso de 70,82 ± 6,76 kg, edad de 23,42 ± 3,25 años, VO2 max de 63,54 ± 5,23 ml·kg-1·min-1) participaron en este estudio. Realizaron tres triatlones completos a intensidades de nado diferentes (70%, 80% y 90% de un test de 750m previo). Se midió la frecuencia cardíaca y el lactato al finalizar cada sector y el triatlón completo. Resultados: La intensidad de nado del 90% obtuvo el mejor rendimiento final. El lactato y frecuencia cardíaca en el sector de nado para esta condición incrementó significativamente, sin diferencias en los sectores siguientes. Conclusiones: Basándonos en la muestra estudiada, el rendimiento final en un triatlón sprint parece estar condicionado por la intensidad de nado, siendo el 90% la mejor intensidad observada en triatletas moderadamente entrenados.

Evaluating force–velocity characteristics on dry-land is of the utmost importance in swimming, because higher levels of these bio-motor abilities positively affect in-water performance. However, the wide range of possible technical specializations presents an opportunity for a more categorized approach that has yet to be seized. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify feasible differences in maximum force–velocity exertion based on swimmers’ stroke and distance specialization. To this scope, 96 young male swimmers competing at the regional level were divided into 12 groups, one for each stroke (butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, and front crawl) and distance (50 m, 100 m, and 200 m). They performed two single pull-up tests, 5-min before and after competing in a federal swimming race. We assessed force (N) and velocity (m/s) exertion via linear encoder. There were no significant differences between pre-post maximum force–velocity exertions, despite the decreasing trend. Force-parameters highly correlated with each other and with the swimming performance time. Moreover, both force (t = −3.60, p < 0.001) and velocity (t = −3.90, p < 0.001) were significant predictors of swimming race time. Sprinters (both 50 m and 100 m) of all strokes could exert significantly higher force–velocity compared to 200 m swimmers (e.g., 0.96 ± 0.06 m/s performed by sprinters vs. 0.66 ± 0.03 m/s performed by 200 m swimmers). Moreover, breaststroke sprinters presented significantly lower force–velocity compared to sprinters specialized in the other strokes (e.g., 1047.83 ± 61.33 N performed by breaststroke sprinters vs. 1263.62 ± 161.23 N performed by butterfly sprinters). This study could provide the foundation for future research regarding the role of stroke and distance specializations in modeling swimmers’ force–velocity abilities, thus influencing paramount elements for specific training and improvement towards competitions.

Stone, MH, Hornsby, WG, Haff, GG, Fry, AC, Suarez, DG, Liu, J, Gonzalez-Rave, JM, and Pierce, KC. Periodization and block periodization in sports: emphasis on strength-power training-a provocative and challenging narrative. J Strength Cond Res 35(8): 2351-2371, 2021-Periodization can be defined as a logical sequential, phasic method of manipulating fitness and recovery phases to increase the potential for achieving specific performance goals while minimizing the potential for nonfunctional over-reaching, overtraining, and injury. Periodization deals with the micromanagement of timelines and fitness phases and is cyclic in nature. On the other hand, programming deals with the micromanagement of the training process and deals with exercise selection, volume, intensity, etc. Evidence indicates that a periodized training process coupled with appropriate programming can produce superior athletic enhancement compared with nonperiodized process. There are 2 models of periodization, traditional and block. Traditional can take different forms (i.e., reverse). Block periodization has 2 subtypes, single goal or factor (individual sports) and multiple goals or factors (team sports). Both models have strengths and weaknesses but can be "tailored" through creative programming to produce excellent results for specific sports.

Knowledge in the scientific domain of individual medley (IM) swimming training over a competitive season is limited. The purpose of this study was to propose a detailed coaching framework incorporating the key elements of a periodized training regimen for a 400 m IM swimmer. This framework was based on the available coaching and scientific literature and the practical experience and expertise of the collaborating authors. The season has been divided in two or three macrocycles, further divided in three mesocycles each (six or nine mesocycles in total), in alignment with the two or three main competitions in each macrocycle. The principal training contents to develop during the season expressed in blood lactate zones are: aerobic training (~2 mmol·L−1), lactate threshold pace (~4 mmol·L−1) and VO2max (maximum oxygen uptake) (~6 mmol·L−1). Strength training should focus on maximum strength, power and speed endurance during the season. Altitude training camps can be placed strategically within the training season to promote physiological adaptation and improvements in performance. A well-constructed technical framework will permit development of training strategies for the 400 m IM swimmer to improve both training and competitive performance.

We present a case study of the periodized training by a world-class 400-m Individual Medley (IM) swimmer (4

The present study focused on propulsive forces applied during tethered swimming. The main aims were to identify asymmetries between dominant and non-dominant arms, quantify the effect of breathing on force application and, explore any association between each variable and swimming performance. Fifteen regional level swimmers completed a maximal front crawl tethered swimming test, with maximal kicking, under four conditions: 1) Dominant arm strokes only, no breathing; 2) non-dominant arm strokes only, no breathing; 3) full stroke, no breathing; 4) full stroke, breathing on the preferred side. The outcome variables were: absolute and normalised (force divided by body mass) minimum, mean and maximum force; stroke cycle time and; impulse. The symmetry index was also calculated, and all variables were correlated with the swimmers' season best times in 50 m front crawl. Some bilateral force asymmetries were found, but they did not always favour the dominant side and were not directly linked with swimming performance. There was no strong evidence that force production is higher on the dominant side or that symmetry in force production affects performance. Despite the longer stroke cycle times when breathing, the breathing actions did not affect force production. Faster swimmers often produced higher maximum force values and, sometimes, higher mean force values.

The present study examines the association between the success at junior and senior level for British swimmers in World Championships (WCs). It also explores the relationships between swimming performance and the swimmers’ gender, swim stroke, distance, status (finalist, semifinalist and heats) and swimming category. Data were collected for swimmers participating in junior and/or senior World Championships (29,000 entries: 5585 swimmers) from 2006–2017. The final filtered database included only swimmers from the United Kingdom (836 entries: 141 swimmers). A descriptive analysis was made to characterize the swimmers who reached elite status in the senior category. A lineal regression model was run by gender to predict the influence of category, swim stroke, and distance in the results reached in the senior category. The results showed that the ratio of conversion from junior to senior was quite low. Females who participated in both junior and senior WCs were likely to reach top positions in the senior category. Overall, few British swimmers participated in a junior category before the senior level, but female swimmers participating in both junior and senior WCs were likely to reach top positions in the senior category. post-print 335 KB

Swimming training programs may help to limit declines in cardiovascular conditioning, muscle strength, mobility and social functioning in individuals with Down&rsquo, s Syndrome (DS): (1) Background: This study aims to analyze the effects of a periodized swimming training program on swimming speed, lower body force and power and body composition in a group of swimmers with DS, (2) Methods: Nine swimmers with DS (2 men and 7 women, aged 21-30 years-old) completed an 18-week periodized swimming program. The swimmers were assessed, pre and post-training, for 25 m, 50 m and 100 m freestyle swim performance, countermovement jump performance and body composition, (3) Results: Significant and large improvements in 25 m (mean &minus, 6.39%, p &lt, 0.05, d = 1.51), 50 m (mean &minus, 4.95%, p &lt, 0.01, d = 2.08) and 100 m (mean &minus, 3.08%, p &lt, 0.05, d = 1.44) freestyle performance were observed following training, with no significant changes in body composition or consistent changes in jump performance (although a large mean 14.6% decrease in relative peak force, p &lt, 0.05, d = 1.23) (4) Conclusions: A periodized 18-week training intervention may improve swimming performance in a small group of trained swimmers with DS, with less clear changes in jump performance or body composition. This program provides a training profile for coaches working with swimmers with DS and a platform for further research into the benefits of swimming training with this under-represented population.

This research aims to provide a better understanding of the swimming push-off specificity comparing force production and electromyographic (EMG) activity on squat-jumps (SJ) and countermovement-jumps (CMJ) performed underwater (similar to swimming turns push-off) and dryland conditions on two different level of expertise participants (swimmers and non-swimmers). Thirteen male swimmers and nine non-trained male sport sciences students participated in this study. Each subject carried out 10 CMJ and 10 SJ jumps in dryland (vertical) and underwater (horizontal). During these trials, force production was recorded by force platforms and muscular activity of Vastus Lateralis, Biceps Femoris, Gastrocnemius Medialis and Tibialis Anterior was analysed through EMG. A three-way ANOVA showed that swimmers increased the differences in values obtained from SJ to CMJ between dry and underwater conditions during the first impulse phase-Impulse 1 (p 0.01), the second phase of impulse-Impulse 2 (p 0.001) and duration from peak force to take off (p 0.001) in contrast to non-swimmers. Patterns relating to force production and EMG were non-consistent between muscles. Jumping performance was not significantly correlated between dry land and underwater conditions; nevertheless, results emphasise that environmental constraints are decisive to define the neuro-motor response to apparently similar tasks performed in different contexts.

The propulsive forces and instantaneous power that are generated by a swimmer have a great influence on the swimming performance. This works presents a new device, called SwimOne, for measuring propulsive force and estimating the instantaneous power of the swimmer. In addition, the detailed prototype is able to exert a customizable opposition force to the swimmer for training purpose. The conceptual idea is presented by describing the differential equation of the swimmer and the protocol for a factible estimation of the instantaneous power. The variables that are to be measured and estimated are identified and, consequently, the sensor and actuator systems can be selected. The high-level and detailed designs of the prototype are presented together with the protocol that is carried out in order to validate the sensor and actuation systems. The device is able to monitor the variables of interest of the swimmer together with the propulsive force and instant power. Finally, some experiments are carried out providing the results of several participants swimming in crawl, backstroke, butterfly, and breaststroke styles in the presence of different opposition force. The preliminary results show that SwimOne is valid for measuring instantaneous force and power with different loads in swimming.

The aim of this study was to determine the influence of body weight or lean body mass-based load on Wingate Anaerobic Test performance in male and female endurance trained individuals. Thirty-one participants (22 male cyclists and triathletes and 9 female triathletes) completed two randomized Wingate Anaerobic Test (body weight and lean body mass loads) in stationary start. There were no significant differences in power outputs variables between loads in any group. However, when comparing specific groups within the sample (e. g. cyclists vs cyclists) medium to large effect sizes were observed for Relative Mean Power Output (ES=0.53), Relative Lowest Power (ES=0.99) and Relative Power Muscle Mass (ES=0.54). Regarding gender differences, male cyclists and triathletes displayed higher relative and absolute power outputs (p

This study used a power rack device to evaluate the effects of 2 different approaches to resisted swim training loads on swimming strength and performance. Sixteen male, youth national-level swimmers (mean age, 16.22 ± 2.63 years; body height, 169 ± 10.20 cm; body mass, 61.33 ± 9.90 kg) completed a 6-week specific strength-training program, and were then randomly assigned to one of the two groups: a standard training group (GS, n = 8) and a flat pyramid-loading pattern group (GP, n = 8). Strength and power tests along with specific swimming tests (50-m crawl and 50-m competition-style time trials) were conducted at baseline (pre-test), before the third week (mid-test), and after 6 weeks of intervention (post-test). Isokinetic swim bench tests were conducted to obtain measurements of force production and power, and 1RM tests with the power rack system were conducted to measure the maximum drag load (MDL) and specific swimming power. Following 6 weeks of intervention, the mean MDL increased (p < 0.05) by 13.94%. Scores for the 50-m competition style and 50-m crawl time trials improved by 0.32% and 0.78%, respectively, in the GP; however, those changes were not statistically significant. The GS significantly increased their time in the 50-m competition style by 2.59%, and their isokinetic force production decreased by 14.47% (p < 0.05). The 6-week strength-training program performed with the power rack device in a pyramidal organization was more effective than a standard linear load organization in terms of producing improvements in the MDL; however, it did not produce significant improvements in performance. The use of a strength-training program with a pyramidal organization can be recommended for specific strength-training in young swimmers during a preparatory period. However, in our study, that program did not produce significant changes in 50-m crawl and main competition style performance.

The aims of the current study were to compare the pacing patterns of all-time 800 m, 1500 m and mile running world records (WRs) and to determine whether differences exist between sexes, and if 800 m and 1500 m WRs were broken during championship or meet races. Overall and lap times for men and women’s 800 m, 1500 m, and mile WRs from World Athletics were collected when available and subsequently compared. A fast initial 200 m segment and a decrease in speed throughout was found during 800 m WRs. Accordingly, the first 200 m and 400 m were faster than the last 200 m and 400 m, respectively (p < 0.001, 0.77 ≤ ES ≤ 1.86). The first 400 m and 409 m for 1500 m and mile WRs, respectively, were faster than the second lap (p < 0.001, 0.74 ≤ ES ≤ 1.46). The third 400 m lap was slower than the last 300 m lap and 400 m lap for 1500 m and mile WRs, respectively (p < 0.001, 0.48 ≤ ES ≤ 1.09). No relevant sex-based differences in pacing strategy were found in any event. However, the first 409 m lap was faster than the last 400 m lap for men but not for women during mile WRs. Women achieved a greater % of WRs than men during championships (80% vs. 45.83% in the 800 m, and 63.63% vs. 31.58% in the 1500 m, respectively). In conclusion, positive, reverse J-shaped and U-shaped pacing profiles were used to break 800 m, men’s mile and 1500 m, and women’s mile WRs, respectively. WRs are more prone to be broken during championships by women than men.

The aims of the present research were to estimate the age of peak performance (APP) and to examine the role of previous experience at the world-level open water race performances. Finishing positions and age of swimmers (639 females and 738 males) in the 10-km events of World Championship (WCH) and Olympic Games (OG) from 2000 to 2019 were obtained from the official results websites. Years of previous experience were computed using the number of previous participations in WCH or OG. APP was estimated using quadratic models of the 10th percentile top race positions and resulted in 28.94 years old for males (R2 = 0.551) and 27.40 years old for females (R2 = 0.613). Regression analysis revealed an improvement of 1.36 or 8.19 finishing positions for each additional year of age or experience, respectively (R2 = 0.157). However, significant differences (p &lt, 0.001) between age and experience showed that the swimmer’s age became less relevant for performance as years of experience increased. These results, in terms of age, are in line with other mass-start disciplines of similar duration (≈2 h) and, in terms of experience, confirm the importance of previous participation in improving tactical decision making during open water races.

Swimming coaches have prescribed dry-land training programs over the years to improve the overall swimming performance (starts, clean swimming, turns and finish). The main aim of the present systematic review was to examine the effects of dry-land strength and conditioning programs on swimming turns. Four online databases were scrutinised, data were extracted using the Preferred PRISMA guidelines and the PEDro scale was applied. A total of 1259 articles were retrieved from database searches. From the 19 studies which were full-text evaluated, six studies were included in the review process. The review indicated that plyometric, strength, ballistic and core training programs were implemented for improving swimming turn performance. Strength, ballistic and plyometric training focusing on neural enhancement seem to be effective for improving swimming turn performance. The data related to training of the core were not conclusive. Coaches should consider incorporating exercises focusing on improving the neuromuscular factor of the leg-extensor muscles into their daily dry-land training programs. More researches are needed to provide a better understanding of the training methods effects and training organisations for improving swimming turn performance. post-print 626 KB

This study compared the association between Foster’s and Banister’s TRIMP methods for quantifying internal training load and training stimuli responses. Methods: A group of twenty-two Taekwondo competitors were divided by gender and level of expertise. The athletes practiced three different types of exercises to develop the following skills: a) speed, b) power, and c) aerobic power. Results: A significant correlation was obtained between the Foster’s and Banister’s TRIMP methods for developing aerobic capacity (r =0.60, p = 0.004) and power (r = 0.52, p = 0.014). No significant correlation was suggested between training methods andspeed training (r = 0.20, p = 0.377). Conclusion: Lactate and heart rate responses to different types of exercises suggested the need for aerobic and anaerobic-based training sessions. The use of rating of perceived exertion scale-based measurements to monitor workload is recommended for Taekwondo competitors. UCR::Vicerrectoría de Investigación::Unidades de Investigación::Ciencias Sociales::Centro de Investigación en Ciencias del Movimiento Humano (CIMOHU) UCR::Vicerrectoría de Docencia::Ciencias Sociales::Facultad de Educación::Escuela de Educación Física

Oxygen cost of running is largely influenced by endurance training strategies, including interval and continuous training. However, which training method better reduces the oxygen cost remains unknown. This study aimed to systematically review the scientific literature and performs a meta-analysis to address the effects of different endurance training modalities on the oxygen cost of running. A literature search on 3 databases (MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus and Web of Science) was conducted on February 28, 2019. After analysing 8028 resultant articles, studies were included if they met the following inclusion criteria: (a) studies were randomised controlled trials, (b) studies included trained runners without previous injuries (c) interventions lasted at least 6 weeks, with participants allocated to Interval (INT) or Continuous (CON) groups, and (d) oxygen cost was assessed pre- and post-training intervention. Six studies (seven trials) met the inclusion criteria and were included in the meta-analysis. This resulted in 295 participants (n = 200 INT; n = 95 CON training method). Standardised mean difference with 95% confidence intervals (CI) between INT and CON conditions and effect sizes were calculated. To assess the potential effects of moderator variables (such as, age, VO2max of participants, number of weeks of intervention) on main outcome (oxygen cost of running), subgroup analyses were performed. Comparing changes from pre- to post-intervention, oxygen cost improved to a greater extent in CON when compared to INT interventions (0.28 [95% CI 0.01, 0.54], Z = 2.05, p = 0.04, I2 = 30%). Oxygen cost improvements were larger in participants with higher VO2max (≥ 52.3 ml kg−1 min−1) (0.39 [95% CI 0.06, 0.72], Z = 2.34, p = 0.02), and in programs greater or equal to 8 weeks (0.35 [95% CI 0.03, 0.67], Z = 2.13, p = 0.03). When the total volume per week of INT was ≥ 23.2 min, there was a significant improvement favorable to CON (0.34 [95% CI 0.01, 0.61], Z = 2.02, p = 0.04). Continuous training seems, overall, a better strategy than interval training to reduce the oxygen cost in recreational endurance runners. However, oxygen cost reductions are influenced by several variables including the duration of the program, runners’ aerobic capacity, the intervals duration and the volume of interval training per week. Practitioners and coaches should construct training programs that include both endurance training methods shown to be effective in reducing the oxygen cost of running.

INTRODUCTION: The influence of acute exercise on sensory sensitivity (SS) differs according to the type and duration of exercise performed. In the present study, we assessed changes on SS soon after a maximal dynamic apnoea. METHODS: Thirty-nine experienced male breath-hold divers were recruited. Critical flicker fusion frequency (CFFF) thresholds were used to measure SS. Thresholds were determined before and after a maximal dynamic apnoea. Immediately after surfacing, heart rate and oxygen saturation (SpO(2)) were recorded for two minutes. RESULTS: After maximal dynamic apnoea, SpO(2) was significantly decreased (from mean 97.3% pre-dive to mean 63.1% post-dive; P < 0.0001; η(2) P = 0.86), but this acute hypoxaemia did not trigger changes in SS (post-dive value 102% of baseline; P = 0.22; η2 P = 0.03). Pearson correlation analysis revealed a moderate association between SS with swimming speed (r = 0.423) and apnoea time (r = -0.404). CONCLUSION: A maximal dynamic apnoea did not produce changes in central nervous system fatigue or cortical arousal. We found no relationship between the hypoxaemia level reached after a maximal apnoea and changes in the CFFF thresholds. This study suggests that the time of exposure to hypoxia during a maximal voluntary apnoea is not enough to produce changes in SS.