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Abstract Background Culicoides midges have been well-studied in Spain, particularly over the last 20 years, mainly because of their role as vectors of arboviral diseases that affect livestock. Most studies on Culicoides are conducted using suction light traps in farmed environments, but studies employing alternative trapping techniques or focusing on natural habitats are scarce. Methods In the present study, we analyze Culicoides captured in 2023 at 476 sites in western Andalusia (southern Spain) using carbon dioxide-baited Biogents (BG)-sentinel traps across different ecosystems. Results We collected 3,084 Culicoides midges (3060 females and 24 males) belonging to 23 species, including the new species Culicoides grandifovea sp. nov. and the first record of Culicoides pseudolangeroni for Europe. Both species were described with morphological and molecular methods and detailed data on spatial distribution was also recorded. The new species showed close phylogenetic relations with sequences from an unidentified Culicoides from Morocco (92.6% similarity) and with Culicoides kurensis. Culicoides imicola was the most abundant species (17.4%), followed by Culicoides grandifovea sp. nov. (14.6%) and Culicoides kurensis (11.9%). Interestingly, Culicoides montanus was the only species of the obsoletus and pulicaris species complexes captured, representing the first record of this species in southern Spain. A total of 53 valid Culicoides species have been reported in the area, with 48 already reported in literature records and 5 more added in the present study. Information on the flight period for the most common Culicoides species is also provided. Conclusions To the best of our knowledge, our study represents the most comprehensive effort ever done on nonfarmland habitats using carbon-dioxide baited suction traps for collecting Culicoides. Our data suggests that using carbon dioxide traps offers a completely different perspective on Culicoides communities compared with routinely used light traps, including the discovery of previously unrecorded species. Graphical Abstract

Abstract Background Aedes albopictus is catalogued as one of the 100 most dangerous species worldwide. Native to Asia, the species has drastically increased its distribution range, reaching all continents except Antarctica. The presence of Ae. albopictus in Spain was first reported in 2004 in Cataluña (NE Spain), and it is spreading in the country. Methods We conducted an extensive mosquito monitoring study in the natural protected area of the Doñana National Park (SW Spain) in 2023. After identifying the presence of Ae. albopictus, a mosquito control strategy was developed and implemented to eradicate the species in the area. Results Overall, 12,652 mosquito females of 14 different species were captured at nine sites within the park. For the first time, the presence of Ae. albopictus was recorded in the area, despite intensive trapping performed at some localities since 2003. The presence of this invasive species in the park is most likely linked to human activities, potentially facilitated by daily car trips of personnel. Although larvae of Culex, Anopheles, and Culiseta mosquitoes were identified in these containers, the presence of Ae. albopictus larvae was not recorded in those locations. In spite of that, the biological larvicide Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) was applied to artificial containers potentially used by Ae. albopictus as breeding sites. Conclusions This work evidences the high capacity of Ae. albopictus to reach highly conserved natural areas far from urban foci. We discuss the implications of the presence of Ae. albopictus in this endangered ecosystem and the potential control measures necessary to prevent its reintroduction. Graphical Abstract

ABSTRACTWest Nile virus (WNV) is the most widely distributed mosquito-borne flavivirus in the world. This flavivirus can infect humans causing in some cases a fatal neurological disease and birds are the main reservoir hosts. WNV is endemic in Spain, and human cases have been reported since 2004. Although different studies analyse how climatic conditions can affect the dynamics of WNV infection, very few use long-term datasets. Between 2003 and 2020 a total of 2,724 serum samples from 1,707 common coots (Fulica atra) were analysed for the presence of WNV-specific antibodies. Mean (SD) annual seroprevalence was 24.67% (0.28) but showed high year-to-year variations ranging from 5.06% (0.17) to 68.89% (0.29). Significant positive correlations (p

Malaria remains one of the most important infectious diseases globally due to its high incidence and mortality rates. The influx of infected cases from endemic to non-endemic malaria regions like Europe has resulted in a public health concern over sporadic local outbreaks. This is facilitated by the continued presence of competent Anopheles vectors in non-endemic countries.We modelled the potential distribution of the main malaria vector across Spain using the ensemble of eight modelling techniques based on environmental parameters and the Anopheles maculipennis s.l. presence/absence data collected from 2000 to 2020. We then combined this map with the number of imported malaria cases in each municipality to detect the geographic hot spots with a higher risk of local malaria transmission.The malaria vector occurred preferentially in irrigated lands characterized by warm climate conditions and moderate annual precipitation. Some areas surrounding irrigated lands in northern Spain (e.g. Zaragoza, Logroño), mainland areas (e.g. Madrid, Toledo) and in the South (e.g. Huelva), presented a significant likelihood of A. maculipennis s.l. occurrence, with a large overlap with the presence of imported cases of malaria.While the risk of malaria re-emergence in Spain is low, it is not evenly distributed throughout the country. The four recorded local cases of mosquito-borne transmission occurred in areas with a high overlap of imported cases and mosquito presence. Integrating mosquito distribution with human incidence cases provides an effective tool for the quantification of large-scale geographic variation in transmission risk and pinpointing priority areas for targeted surveillance and prevention.

After mosquitoes, ticks are among the most important vector of pathogens of concern for animal and public health, but unless mosquitoes ticks remain attached to their hosts for long time periods providing an opportunity to analyse their role in the dispersal and dynamics of different zoonotic pathogens. Given their interest in public health it is important to understand which factors affect their incidence in different hosts and to stablish effective surveillance programs to determine the risk of transmission and spill-over of zoonotic pathogens. Taking benefit of a large network of volunteer ornithologists, we analysed the life-history traits associated to the presence of ticks using information of 620,609 individuals of 231 avian species. Bird phylogeny, locality and year explained a large amount of variance in tick prevalence. Non-colonial species non breeding in grasslands and non-spending the non-breeding season as gregarious groups or isolated individuals (e.g. thrushes, quails and finches) had the higher prevalence of ticks and appear as good candidates for zoonosis surveillance programs based on the analyses of ticks collected from wild birds. Ringers underestimated tick prevalence but can be considered as an important source of information of ticks for public and animal health surveillance programs if properly trained for the detection and collection of the different tick development phases.

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Summary: Avian malaria parasites provide an important model for studying host-pathogen interactions, yet understanding their dynamics in vectors under natural conditions is limited. We investigated the effect of vector abundance, species richness and diversity, and habitat characteristics on avian Plasmodium prevalence and lineage richness in Culex pipiens across 45 urban, natural, and rural localities in southern Spain. Analyzing 16,574 mosquitoes grouped in 768 mosquito pools, 32.7% exhibited parasite presence. 13 different Plasmodium lineages were identified, with the lineage SYAT05 being the most commonly found. Parasite prevalence positively correlated with the distance to saltmarshes and rivers, but negatively with the distance to total water source. Parasite lineage diversity was higher in natural than in rural areas and positively correlated with mosquito species richness. These results emphasize the complex dynamics of avian Plasmodium in the wild, with habitat characteristics and vector community driving the parasite transmission by mosquito vectors.

West Nile virus (WNV) is a re-emerging zoonotic pathogen with increasing incidence in Europe, producing a recent outbreak in 2020 in Spain with 77 human cases and eight fatalities. However, the factors explaining the observed changes in the incidence of WNV in Europe are not completely understood. Longitudinal monitoring of WNV in wild animals across Europe is a useful approach to understand the eco-epidemiology of WNV in the wild and the risk of spillover into humans. However, such studies are very scarce up to now. Here, we analysed the occurrence of WNV and Usutu virus (USUV) antibodies in 2102 samples collected between 2005 and 2020 from a population of feral horses in Doñana National Park. The prevalence of WNV antibodies varied between years, with a mean seroprevalence of 8.1% (range 0%–25%) and seasonally. Climate conditions including mean minimum annual temperatures and mean rainy days per year were positively correlated with WNV seroprevalence, while the annual rainfall was negatively. We also detected the highest incidence of seroconversions in 2020 coinciding with the human outbreak in southern Spain. Usutu virus-specific antibodies were detected in the horse population since 2011. The WNV outbreak in humans was preceded by a long period of increasing circulation of WNV among horses with a very high exposure in the year of the outbreak. These results highlight the utility of One Health approaches to better understand the transmission dynamics of zoonotics pathogens.

West Nile virus (WNV) is a globally significant vector-borne disease that is primarily transmitted between birds and mosquitoes. Recently, there has been an increase in WNV in southern Europe, with new cases reported in more northern regions. Bird migration plays a crucial role in the introduction of WNV in distant areas. To better understand and address this complex issue, we adopted a One Health approach, integrating clinical, zoological, and ecological data. We analyzed the role of migratory birds in the Palaearctic-African region in the spread of WNV across Africa and Europe. We categorized bird species into breeding and wintering chorotypes based on their distribution during the breeding season in the Western Palaearctic and the wintering season in the Afrotropical region, respectively. By linking these chorotypes to the occurrence of WNV outbreaks in both continents throughout the annual bird migration cycle, we investigated the relationship between migratory patterns and virus spread. We demonstrate that WNV-risk areas are interconnected through the migration of birds. We identified a total of 61 species that potentially contribute to the intercontinental spread of the virus or its variants, as well as pinpointed high-risk areas for future outbreaks. This interdisciplinary approach, which considers the interconnectedness of animals, humans, and ecosystems, represents a pioneering effort to establish connections between zoonotic diseases across continents. The findings of our study can aid in anticipating the arrival of new WNV strains and predicting the occurrence of other re-emerging diseases. By incorporating various disciplines, we can enhance our understanding of these complex dynamics and provide valuable insights for proactive and comprehensive disease management strategies.

Background: Lyme disease (LD) is an emergent vector-borne disease caused by Borrelia spp. and transmitted through infected ticks, mainly Ixodes spp. Our objective was to determine meteorological and environmental factors associated with LD transmission in Europe and the effect of climate change on LD. Materials and methods: A systematic review following the PRISMA guidelines was performed. We selected studies on LD transmission in the European Union (EU) and the European Economic Area (EEA) published between 2000 and 2022. The protocol was registered in the PROSPERO database. Results: We included 81 studies. The impact of environmental, meteorological or climate change factors on tick vectors was studied in 65 papers (80%), and the impact on human LD cases was studied in 16 papers (19%), whereas animal hosts were only addressed in one study (1%). A significant positive relationship was observed between temperature and precipitation and the epidemiology of LD, although contrasting results were found among studies. Other positive factors were humidity and the expansion of anthropized habitats. Conclusions: The epidemiology of LD seems to be related to climatic factors that are changing globally due to ongoing climate change. Unfortunately, the complete zoonotic cycle was not systematically analyzed. It is important to adopt a One Health approach to understand LD epidemiology.

Migratory waterbirds disperse a broad range of angiosperms by endozoochory (seed dispersal via gut passage), especially plants in coastal wetlands. However, there is no previous information about the capacity of seeds to remain in the seed bank after waterbird endozoochory, and very little about how wetland salinity can influence the effect of gut passage on germination. We collected seeds of Juncus subulatus (Juncaceae), Bolboschoenus maritimus, and Schoenoplectus litoralis (Cyperaceae) from Doñana marshes in Spain. All three species are considered to have physiological dormancy. After gut passage following ingestion by ducks, seeds were stored in darkness in solutions with six different conductivities (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, and 32 dSm-1), for periods of 1, 6, or 12 months to simulate presence in a seed bank. After storage, 1800 seeds of each plant species assigned to these treatments were subjected to germination tests in demineralized water, together with 1800 control seeds that had not been ingested before storage. All species germinated readily after storage, with or without gut passage beforehand. Storage time and salinity both had important effects on germinability and time to germination, which differed between control and ingested seeds, and between plant species. After ≥6 months, germinability of Cyperaceae was enhanced by gut passage (≤25% higher than control seeds) at some salinities. Only J. subulatus showed consistently lower germinability after passage (≤30%). Only B. maritimus showed consistently slower germination after passage (≤33%). Salinity effects were more complex after passage, but increasing salinity did not generally have a negative impact on germination of ingested seeds. When compared to additional seeds that had not been stored before germination tests, storage reduced germinability in J. subulatus (≤39% reduction), but increased it in B. maritimus (≤17%) and S. litoralis (≤46%). Seeds dispersed by waterbird endozoochory may be easily incorporated into wetland seed banks, where they can remain halotolerant and delay germination until conditions become suitable. This can benefit wetland plants by increasing rates of long-distance dispersal, gene flow, and establishment of new populations. Avian gut passage can have positive and species-specific effects on germination in plants with persistent seed banks and/or physiological dormancy.

Migrant bird populations often show substantial variation in route choice and timing. Determining whether this population‐level variation is driven by between‐individual differences and/or flexibility within individuals is key to identifying drivers of migration patterns. ‘Repeatability' (R, the proportion of population‐level variation attributable to between‐individual variation) has become a central metric for the relative consistency of individual behaviour. Individual repeatability in migratory route choice and timing is often reported to vary between seasonal and regional contexts and may also differ between demographic groups (e.g. sexes), but interpreting repeatability requires careful consideration of the underlying changes in between‐ and within‐individual variation. We GPS‐tracked repeat migrations for eight male and five female Eleonora's falcons Falco eleonorae and quantified the magnitude of within‐ and between‐individual variation and the individual repeatability of their seasonal routes and timing at 100 km intervals all across Africa. We did this across both sexes, and then separately for males and females. We found greater between‐individual variation in spring routes, albeit with substantial regional fluctuations in both seasons. The greatest between‐individual variation in routes occurred during the spring desert‐crossing, but this coincided with high within‐individual variation, and thus only low repeatability of route choice. Route repeatability instead peaked (R = 0.6–0.8) through the Horn of Africa in spring, and during the rainforest‐crossing in autumn. Variation and repeatability of timing was stable across regions, with generally higher between‐individual variation and repeatability in spring. Sex‐specific analyses suggest males exhibit higher route repeatability, while females exhibit stronger seasonal contrasts in timing repeatability. Such sex differences were unexpected, but overall, between‐individual variation and repeatability in routes and timings appear greater where environmental and annual cycle constraints are weaker. Route repeatability is especially high where falcons show fidelity to stop‐over sites, or individual barrier‐crossing preferences. Individual routines may be acquired through early‐life exploration‐refinement.

Reports of West Nile virus (WNV) associated disease in humans were scarce in Spain until summer 2020, when 77 cases were reported, eight fatal. Most cases occurred next to the Guadalquivir River in the Sevillian villages of Puebla del Río and Coria del Río. Detection of WNV disease in humans was preceded by a large increase in the abundance of Culex perexiguus in the neighbourhood of the villages where most human cases occurred. The first WNV infected mosquitoes were captured approximately one month before the detection of the first human cases. Overall, 33 positive pools of Cx. perexiguus and one pool of Culex pipiens were found. Serology of wild birds confirmed WNV circulation inside the affected villages, that transmission to humans also occurred in urban settings and suggests that virus circulation was geographically more widespread than disease cases in humans or horses may indicate. A high prevalence of antibodies was detected in blackbirds (Turdus merula) suggesting that this species played an important role in the amplification of WNV in urban areas. Culex perexiguus was the main vector of WNV among birds in natural and agricultural areas, while its role in urban areas needs to be investigated in more detail. Culex pipiens may have played some role as bridge vector of WNV between birds and humans once the enzootic transmission cycle driven by Cx. perexiguus occurred inside the villages. Surveillance of virus in mosquitoes has the potential to detect WNV well in advance of the first human cases.

Introduction/objective: West Nile virus (WNV) is one of the most widely distributed flaviviruses worldwide. It is considered an endemic and emerging pathogen in different areas of the Europe and Mediterranean countries (MR). Mosquitoes of the genus Culex spp. are the main vectors, and birds its main vertebrate hosts. It can occasionally infect mammals, including humans. Different environmental factors can influence its distribution and transmission through its effects on vector or host populations. Our objective was to determine environmental factors associated with changes in vector distribution and WNV transmission in Europe and MR. Material & methods: Systematic peer review of articles published between 2000 and 2020. We selected studies on WNV, and its vectors carried out in Europe and MR. The search included terms referring to climatic and environmental factors. Results: We included 65 studies, of which 21 (32%) were conducted in Italy. Culex spp. was studied in 26 papers (40%), humans in 19 papers (29%) and host animals (mainly horses) in 16 papers (25%), whereas bird reservoirs were addressed in 5 studies (8%). A significant positive relationship was observed between changes in temperature and precipitation patterns and the epidemiology of WNV, although contrasting results were found among studies. Other factors positively related to WNV dynamics were the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI] and expansion of anthropized habitats. Conclusion: The epidemiology of WNV seems to be related to climatic factors that are changing globally due to ongoing climate change. Unfortunately, the complete zoonotic cycle was not analyzed in most papers, making it difficult to determine the independent impact of environment on the different components of the transmission cycle. Given the current expansion and endemicity of WNV in the area, it is important to adopt holistic approaches to understand WNV epidemiology and to improve WNV surveillance and control.

West Nile Virus (WNV) is a mosquito vector-borne zoonosis with an increasing incidence in Europe that has become a public health concern. In Spain, although local circulation has been known for decades, until 2020, when a large outbreak occurred, West Nile Virus cases were scarce and mostly occurred in southern Spain. Since then, there have been new cases every year and the pathogen has spread to new regions. Thus, monitoring of circulating variants and lineages plays a fundamental role in understanding WNV evolution, spread and dynamics. In this study, we sequenced WNV consensus genomes from mosquito pools captured in 2022 as part of a newly implemented surveillance program in southern Spain and compared it to other European, African and Spanish sequences. Characterization of WNV genomes in mosquitoes captured in 2022 reveals the co-circulation of two WNV lineage 1 variants, the one that caused the outbreak in 2020 and another variant that is closely related to variants reported in Spain in 2012, France in 2015, Italy in 2021–2022 and Senegal in 2012–2018. The geographic distribution of these variants indicates that WNV L1 dynamics in southern Europe include an alternating dominance of variants in some territories.

Abstract Haemosporidian parasites are common in birds but are seldom reported in seabirds. The absence of vectors or genetic resistance to infection have been proposed to explain this pattern. However, screening of blood parasites in many seabirds has been done only by visual inspection of blood smears, which can miss low-intensity infections, and molecular detection of blood parasites must be supported by detection in blood smears to confirm the presence of haemosporidians and avoid false positive cases. Here, we tested for the presence of blood parasites of the genera Plasmodium, Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon, combining inspection of blood smears and PCR-based detection methods in a highly philopatric colony of blue-footed boobies (Sula nebouxii) in the Tropical North Pacific. Our results indicate that adults in this colony are likely free of these blood parasites, probably due to unsuitable conditions for insect vectors in booby breeding sites, although potential genetic resistance of blue-footed boobies to infection deserves examination. Apparent absence of blood parasites in Isla Isabel boobies indirectly adds to the growing evidence of variation in parasite infections among avian host species that coexist locally.

Global change is an important driver of the increase in emerging infectious diseases in recent decades. In parallel, interest in nature has increased, and different citizen science platforms have been developed to record wildlife observations from the general public. Some of these platforms also allow registering the observations of dead or sick birds. Here, we test the utility of live, sick and dead observations of birds recorded on the platform Observation.org for the early detection of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) outbreaks in the wild in Belgium and The Netherlands. There were no significant differences in the morbidity/mortality rate through Observation.org one to four weeks in advance. However, the results show that the HPAIV outbreaks officially reported by the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) overlapped in time with sudden increases in the records of sick and dead birds in the wild. In addition, in two of the five main HPAIV outbreaks recorded between 2016 and 2021, wild Anseriformes mortality increased one to two months before outbreak declaration. Although we cannot exclude that this increase was related to other causes such as other infectious diseases, we propose that Observation.org is a useful nature platform to complement animal health surveillance in wild birds. We propose possible approaches to improve the utility of the platform for pathogen surveillance in wildlife and discuss the potential for HPAIV outbreak detection systems based on citizen science to complement current surveillance programs of health authorities.

Abstract Background Route choice and travel performance of fly-forage migrants are partly driven by large-scale habitat availability, but it remains unclear to what extent wind support through large-scale wind regimes moulds their migratory behaviour. We aimed to determine to what extent a trans-equatorial fly-forage migrant engages in adaptive drift through distinct wind regimes and biomes across Africa. The Inter-tropical Front (ITF) marks a strong and seasonally shifting climatic boundary at the thermal equator, and we assessed whether migratory detours were associated with this climatic feature. Furthermore, we sought to disentangle the influence of wind and biome on daily, regional and seasonal travel performance. Methods We GPS-tracked 19 adult Eleonora’s falcons Falco eleonorae from the westernmost population on the Canary Islands across 39 autumn and 36 spring migrations to and from Madagascar. Tracks were annotated with wind data to assess the falcons’ orientation behaviour and the wind support they achieved in each season and distinct biomes. We further tested whether falcon routes across the Sahel were correlated with the ITF position, and how realized wind support and biome affect daily travel times, distances and speeds. Results Changes in orientation behaviour across Africa’s biomes were associated with changes in prevailing wind fields. Falcons realized higher wind support along their detours than was available along the shortest possible route by drifting through adverse autumn wind fields, but compromised wind support while detouring through supportive spring wind fields. Movements across the Sahel-Sudan zone were strongly associated to the ITF position in autumn, but were more individually variable in spring. Realized wind support was an important driver of daily travel speeds and distances, in conjunction with regional wind-independent variation in daily travel time budgets. Conclusions Although daily travel time budgets of falcons vary independently from wind, their daily travel performance is strongly affected by orientation-dependent wind support. Falcons thereby tend to drift to minimize or avoid headwinds through opposing wind fields and over ecological barriers, while compensating through weak or supportive wind fields and over hospitable biomes. The ITF may offer a climatic leading line to fly-forage migrants in terms of both flight and foraging conditions.

Abstract Whilst the immune system often varies seasonally and exhibits differences between males and females, the general patterns in seasonality and sex differences across taxa have remained controversial. Birds are excellent model organisms to assess these patterns, because the immune system of many species is well characterised. We conducted a meta-analysis using 41 wild bird species from 24 avian families to investigate sex differences and seasonal (breeding/non-breeding) variations in immune status, including white blood cell counts, phytohaemagglutinin (PHA) test, bacteria-killing ability (BKA), haemolysis and haemagglutination assays. We found male-biased macrophage concentration, BKA and haemolysis titers, but only during the breeding season. Sex-specific heterophil concentrations, heterophil/lymphocyte ratios and PHA responses differed between breeding and non-breeding, suggesting larger changes in males than in females. Importantly, sex differences in immune status are stronger during the breeding period than during the non-breeding period. Taken together, our study suggests that both seasonal variation and sex differences in immune system are common in birds, although their associations are more complex than previously thought.

Abstract Background Granada virus belongs to the genus Phlebovirus within the Naples serocomplex and was detected for the first time in sand flies from Spain in 2003. Seroprevalence studies have revealed that Granada virus may infect humans with most cases being asymptomatic. Moreover, recent studies in vector samples revealed that the related Massilia and Arrabida phleboviruses could be also circulating in Spain. The objective of this study was to develop and assess a new sensitive real-time RT-PCR assay for Granada virus diagnosis able to detect the related phleboviruses Massilia and Arrabida. Methods Two specific primers and one unique probe to detect Granada, Massilia and Arrabida viruses, without differentiating between them, were designed targeting the conserved L-segment of their genome. Sensitivity was assessed using 10-fold serial dilutions of quantified in vitro DNA samples. Specificity was evaluated by testing different genomic RNA extracted from other representative phleboviruses. The new assay was used for virus detection in sand flies collected in 2012 from the Balearic Archipelago, a touristic hotspot in the Mediterranean. Results The real-time RT-PCR assay exhibited a sensitivity per reaction of 19 copies for Granada and Arrabida, and 16 copies for Massilia. No other related phleboviruses were detected. From the 37 pools of sand fly samples studied from four different Balearic Islands, we detected one positive in the island of Cabrera. Conclusions To our knowledge, the method described here is the first real-time RT-PCR designed to detect Granada virus and the related Massilia and Arrabida phleboviruses. The study demonstrated that this is a rapid, robust and reliable assay for the accurate diagnosis of human infections as well as for virus surveillance in vectors.

Emerging infectious diseases are one of the most important global health challenges because of their impact on human and animal health. The vector-borne West Nile virus (WNV) is transmitted between birds by mosquitos, but it can also infect humans and horses causing disease. The local circulation of WNV in Spain has been known for decades, and since 2010, there have been regular outbreaks in horses, although only six cases were reported in humans until 2019. In 2020, Spain experienced a major outbreak with 77 human cases, which was followed by 6 additional cases in 2021, most of them in the Andalusian region (southern Spain). This study aimed to characterize the genomes of the WNV circulating in wild-trapped mosquitoes during 2020 and 2021 in Andalusia. We sequenced the WNV consensus genome from two mosquito pools and carried out the phylogenetic analyses. We also compared the obtained genomes with those sequenced from human samples obtained during the outbreak and the genomes obtained previously in Spain from birds (2007 and 2017), mosquitoes (2008) and horses (2010) to better understand the eco-epidemiology of WNV in Spain. As expected, the WNV genomes recovered from mosquito pools in 2020 were closely related to those recovered from humans of the same outbreak. In addition, the strain of WNV circulating in 2021 was highly related to the WNV strain that caused the 2020 outbreak, suggesting that WNV is overwintering in the area. Consequently, future outbreaks of the same strain may occur in in the future.

Introduction: The ecology of the vertebrate host contributes to the geographical range expansion of ticks. In this study, we investigated which tick taxa that infest and are dispersed by birds along African-Western Palaearctic flyways during northward migration, and whether bird ecology was associated with tick taxa. Materials and methods: Ticks were collected from birds trapped at bird observatories in Spain, Italy, Greece, and Israel during the spring migration of 2014 and 2015, using mist nets. The tick-infested bird species were classified into guilds, using different combinations of the variables: migration distance, wintering region, foraging behaviour, and winter habitat. Ticks were molecularly determined to genus and species level by sequencing fragments of the 12S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) gene and by phylogenetic inference, using the Maximum Likelihood algorithm. Data were analysed using descriptive measures, graphs, Chi2 tests, the Tukey-Kramer test, and a parametric linear model (generalized linear model) in order to analyse and adjust for characteristics in the bird guilds and their relationship to collected tick taxa. Results: Most (84.2%) of the 10,209 trapped birds were long-distance migrants, of which 2.4% were infested by ticks. The most common tick species was Hyalomma rufipes (77.7%; 447/575), a known vector and reservoir of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus. Bird guilds containing only long-distance migrants with wintering areas in Africa were associated with the tick species H. rufipes (p

The Dilution Effect Hypothesis (DEH) argues that greater biodiversity lowers the risk of disease and reduces the rates of pathogen transmission since more diverse communities harbour fewer competent hosts for any given pathogen, thereby reducing host exposure to the pathogen. DEH is expected to operate most intensely in vector-borne pathogens and when species-rich communities are not associated with increased host density. Overall, dilution will occur if greater species diversity leads to a lower contact rate between infected vectors and susceptible hosts, and between infected hosts and susceptible vectors. Field-based tests simultaneously analysing the prevalence of several multi-host pathogens in relation to host and vector diversity are required to validate DEH. We tested the relationship between the prevalence in house sparrows (Passer domesticus) of four vector-borne pathogens-three avian haemosporidians (including the avian malaria parasite Plasmodium and the malaria-like parasites Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon) and West Nile virus (WNV)-and vertebrate diversity. Birds were sampled at 45 localities in SW Spain for which extensive data on vector (mosquitoes) and vertebrate communities exist. Vertebrate censuses were conducted to quantify avian and mammal density, species richness and evenness. Contrary to the predictions of DEH, WNV seroprevalence and haemosporidian prevalence were not negatively associated with either vertebrate species richness or evenness. Indeed, the opposite pattern was found, with positive relationships between avian species richness and WNV seroprevalence, and Leucocytozoon prevalence being detected. When vector (mosquito) richness and evenness were incorporated into the models, all the previous associations between WNV prevalence and the vertebrate community variables remained unchanged. No significant association was found for Plasmodium prevalence and vertebrate community variables in any of the models tested. Despite the studied system having several characteristics that should favour the dilution effect (i.e., vector-borne pathogens, an area where vector and host densities are unrelated, and where host richness is not associated with an increase in host density), none of the relationships between host species diversity and species richness, and pathogen prevalence supported DEH and, in fact, amplification was found for three of the four pathogens tested. Consequently, the range of pathogens and communities studied needs to be broadened if we are to understand the ecological factors that favour dilution and how often these conditions occur in nature.

Abstract Background Avian malaria parasites are a highly diverse group that commonly infect birds and have deleterious effects on their hosts. Some parasite lineages are geographically widespread and infect many host species in many regions. Bird migration, natural dispersal, invasive species and human-mediated introductions into areas where competent insect vectors are present, are probably the main drivers of the current distribution of avian malaria parasites. Methods A total of 412 and 2588 wild house sparrows (Passer domesticus) were captured in 2012 and 2013 in two areas of the Iberian Peninsula (central and southern Spain, respectively). Genomic DNA was extracted from blood samples; parasite lineages were sequenced and identified by comparing with GenBank and/or MalAvi databases. Results Thirteen Plasmodium lineages were identified in house sparrows corresponding to three major clades. Five individuals were infected by the African Plasmodium lineage PAGRI02, which has been proposed to actively circulate only in Africa. Conclusions Despite the low prevalence of PAGRI02 in sparrows in Spain, our results suggest that the area of transmission of this parasite is more widespread than previously thought and covers both Africa and Europe. Further studies of the global distribution of Plasmodium lineages infecting wild birds are required to identify the current transmission areas of these parasites. This is vital given the current scenario of global change that is providing new opportunities for avian malaria transmission into areas where parasites were previously absent.

Abstract Background The transmission of mosquito-borne pathogens is strongly influenced by the contact rates between mosquitoes and susceptible hosts. The biting rates of mosquitoes depend on different factors including the mosquito species and host-related traits (i.e. odour, heat and behaviour). However, host characteristics potentially affecting intraspecific differences in the biting rate of mosquitoes are poorly known. Here, we assessed the impact of three host-related traits on the biting rate of two mosquito species with different feeding preferences: the ornithophilic Culex pipiens and the mammophilic Ochlerotatus (Aedes) caspius. Seventy-two jackdaws Corvus monedula and 101 house sparrows Passer domesticus were individually exposed to mosquito bites to test the effect of host sex, body mass and infection status by the avian malaria parasite Plasmodium on biting rates. Results Ochlerotatus caspius showed significantly higher biting rates than Cx. pipiens on jackdaws, but non-significant differences were found on house sparrows. In addition, more Oc. caspius fed on female than on male jackdaws, while no differences were found for Cx. pipiens. The biting rate of mosquitoes on house sparrows increased through the year. The bird infection status and body mass of both avian hosts were not related to the biting rate of both mosquito species. Conclusions Host sex was the only host-related trait potentially affecting the biting rate of mosquitoes, although its effect may differ between mosquito and host species.

The migratory behavior of wild birds contributes to the geographical spread of ticks and their microorganisms. In this study, we aimed to investigate the dispersal and co-occurrence of Francisella and spotted fever group Rickettsia (SFGR) in ticks infesting birds migrating northward in the African-Western Palaearctic region (AWPR). Birds were trapped with mist nests across the Mediterranean basin during the 2014 and 2015 spring migration. In total, 575 ticks were collected from 244 birds. We screened the ticks for the species Francisella tularensis, the genus Francisella, and SFGR by microfluidic real-time PCR. Confirmatory analyses and metagenomic sequencing were performed on tick samples that putatively tested positive for F. tularensis during initial screenings. Hyalomma rufipes was the most common tick species and had a high prevalence of Francisella, including co-occurrence of Francisella and SFGR. Metagenomic analysis of total DNA extracted from two H. rufipes confirmed the presence of Francisella, Rickettsia, and Midichloria. Average nucleotide identity and phylogenetic inference indicated the highest identity of the metagenome-assembled genomes to a Francisella-like endosymbiont (FLE), Rickettsia aeschlimannii, and Midichloria mitochondrii. The results of this study suggest that (i) FLE- and SFGR-containing ticks are dispersed by northbound migratory birds in the AWPR, (ii) H. rufipes likely is not involved in transmission of F. tularensis in the AWPR, and (iii) a dual endosymbiosis of FLEs and Midichloria may support some of the nutritional requirements of H. rufipes.

Background: Leishmaniasis is a neglected zoonosis produced by 20 different flagellated parasites of the Leishmania genus, a protozoan transmitted to humans and other vertebrates by the bite of dipteran insects of the Phlebotominae subfamily. It is endemic in Mediterranean countries and the number of cases is expected to increase due to climate change and migration. Prioritizing public health interventions for prevention and control is essential. The objective was to characterize the epidemiology and temporal trends in the incidence of human leishmaniasis in the city of Barcelona, between the years 1996 and 2019.Methods: A population-based, analytical observational study among residents in the city of Barcelona was conducted of all the cases of leishmaniasis reported between 1996 and 2019 to the Public Health Agency. The epidemiological survey contains clinical, diagnostic, and epidemiological data, including contact with suspicious mammals or insects. Annual incidence-rates were calculated by sex, age, and country of origin. Chi-square tests were used to assess association between studied risk factors, periods of time and type of leishmaniasis.Results: During the study period a total of 177 cases of leishmaniasis were reported in Barcelona, being 74.6% (n = 132) of the total cases in Spanish born, although within the foreign-born population the incidence was higher. Median age was 34 years (IQR = 10–48) and 121 (66.8%) were male. The main type was cutaneous (46%) followed by visceral (35.1%). The cumulative incidence was 0.47 per 100,000 inhabitants, with the highest incidence found in 2017 (1.60 per 100,000 inhabitants). A higher incidence was observed in the 0–4-year-old group (1.73 per 100,000 inhabitants), but increased during the study period for all age groups. There was an increase of foreign origin cases, and a decrease in the number of cases associated to any immunosuppression.Conclusion: In Barcelona, leishmaniasis incidence continues to be higher in people under 5 years of age, and 25–64 years old males, but it has also increased in population from foreign country of birth. There is an increase of the cases since 2016, probably due to the changes in the notification system, increasing the diagnosis of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Improvements in the current surveillance system are needed. Notification of the disease, vector, and reservoir control activities are also essential for the control of the disease.

Both intrinsic and extrinsic factors affect the capacity of mosquitoes for the transmission of vector-borne pathogens. Among them, mosquito microbiota may play a key role determining the development of pathogens in mosquitoes and the cost of infections. Here, we used a wild avian malaria-mosquito assemblage model to experimentally test the role of vector microbiota on the cost of infection and their consequences for parasite development. To do so, a cohort of Culex pipiens mosquitoes were treated with antibiotics, including gentamicin sulfate and penicillin-streptomycin, to alter their microbiota, and other cohort was treated with sterilized water as controls. Subsequently, both cohorts were allowed to feed on Plasmodium infected or uninfected house sparrows (Passer domesticus). The antibiotic treatment significantly increased the survival rate of mosquitoes fed on infected birds while this was not the case of mosquitoes fed on uninfected birds. Additionally, a higher prevalence of Plasmodium in the saliva of mosquitoes was found in antibiotic treated mosquitoes than in mosquitoes of the control group at 20 days post exposure (dpe). Analyses of the microbiota of a subsample of mosquitoes at 20 dpe suggest that although the microbiota diversity did not differ between individuals of the two treatments, microbiota in control mosquitoes had a higher number of unique features and enriched in biochemical pathways related to the immune system than antibiotic treated ones. In sum, this study provides support for the role of mosquito microbiota on mosquito survival and the presence of parasite DNA in their saliva.

Mosquitoes breeding in urban sewage infrastructure are both a source of nuisance to the local population and a public health risk, given that biting mosquitoes can transmit pathogenic organisms to humans. The increasing presence of the invasive mosquito species Aedes albopictus in European cities has further exacerbated the problems already caused by native Culex pipiens. We tested the effectiveness of modifications to sewage structures as an alternative to the use of biocides to prevent mosquito breeding. The placing of a layer of concrete at the bottom of sand sewers to prevent water accumulation completely eliminated mosquito reproduction, and so eliminates the need for biocides in modified structures. Sewer modification is thus a valid low-cost alternative for mosquito control.

Zoological gardens are home to a large number of vertebrate species and as such are suitable sites for both mosquito breeding and maintenance. They are excellent places for entomological studies of mosquito phenology, diversity, and blood-feeding patterns, as well as for xenomonitoring. During 2016, we sampled mosquitoes in Barcelona Zoo and used molecular methods to determine their blood-feeding patterns and the prevalence and diversity of avian malaria parasites. We also estimated the flight distance of engorged mosquitoes in the area. Overall, 1,384 adult Culex pipiens s.l., Culiseta longiareolata, and Aedes albopictus were captured. Birds dominated the diet of Cx. pipiens s.l. (n = 87) and Cs. longiareolata (n = 6), while humans were the only blood-meal source of Ae. albopictus (n = 3). Mosquitoes had a mean flight distance of 95.67 m after feeding on blood (range 38.71–168.51 m). Blood parasites were detected in the abdomen of 13 engorged Cx. pipiens s.l., eight of which had fed on magpies. Four Plasmodium lineages and a single lineage of the malaria-like parasite Haemoproteus were identified. These results suggest that Cx. pipiens s.l. is involved in the local transmission of avian Plasmodium, which potentially affects the circulation of parasites between and within wildlife and enclosed animals. Vigilance regarding possible mosquito breeding sites in this zoo is thus recommended.

Do islands harbour less diverse disease communities than mainland? The island biogeography theory predicts more diverse communities on mainland than on islands due to more niches, more diverse habitats and availability of greater range of hosts. We compared bacteria prevalences of Campylobacter, Chlamydia and Salmonella in cloacal samples of a small shorebird, the Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) between two island populations of Macaronesia and two mainland locations in the Iberian Peninsula. Bacteria were found in all populations but, contrary to the expectations, prevalences did not differ between islands and mainland. Females had higher prevalences than males for Salmonella and when three bacteria genera were pooled together. Bacteria infection was unrelated to bird's body condition but females from mainland were heavier than males and birds from mainland were heavier than those from islands. Abiotic variables consistent throughout breeding sites, like high salinity that is known to inhibit bacteria growth, could explain the lack of differences in the bacteria prevalence between areas. We argue about the possible drivers and implications of sex differences in bacteria prevalence in Kentish plovers.

Sexually selected signals reliably reflect individual phenotypic or genetic quality and, thus, survival prospects of holders. Telomere length is considered a good predictor of life expectancy and, consequently, exploring the links between telomere length and sexually selected traits is much needed to better understand the mechanisms that maintain the honesty of sexual signals. We manipulated the length of throat feathers in spotless starling (Sturnus unicolor) males (a sexually selected signal) before reproduction and explored its effects on telomere shortening and breeding performance in subsequent reproductive events. We did not detect an effect of the feathers clipping manipulation, but males with longer throat feathers before the experiment had shorter telomeres that also shortened more slowly than those of males with shorter throat feathers did. Moreover, length of throat feathers of males before manipulation was positively related to hatching success of second clutches. Thus, correlative but not experimental results support the expected associations between sexually selected signals, telomeres and reproduction. We discuss such results in scenarios of sexual selection where feather length reflects, but does not directly cause, telomere attrition, and enhanced reproductive success. Males with longer throat feathers might be older, more experienced males (i.e., with shorter telomeres), able to buffer telomere shortening between reproductive events. Because of the absence of experimental effects, differential incubation effort of females cannot explain the detected association with hatching success, but other sexually selected traits that covary with throat-feather length could be responsible. Exploring those physiological and/or morphological characteristics related to throat-feather length should therefore be the matter of future research.

Background: CT scan is a life-saving medical diagnostic tool, entailing higher levels of ionising radiation exposure than conventional radiography, which may result in an increase in cancer risk, particularly in children. Information about the use and potential health effects of CT scan imaging among young people in Spain is scarce. Objective: This paper aims to estimate the number of radiation-related cancer cases which can be expected due to the use of CT scanning in Spanish children and young adults in a single year (2013). Methods: The 2013 distribution of number and types of CT scans performed in young people was obtained for Catalonia and extrapolated to the whole Spain. Organ doses were estimated based on the technical characteristics of 17,406 CT examinations extracted from radiology records. Age and sex-specific data on cancer incidence and life tables were obtained for the Spanish population. Age and sex-specific risk models developed by the Committee on Health Risks of Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiations (BEIR VII) and Berrington de Gonzalez were used, together, with the dose estimates to derive the lifetime attributable risks of cancer in Spain due to one year of CT scanning and project the number of future cancer cases to be expected. Results: In 2013, 105,802 CT scans were estimated to have been performed in people younger than age 21. It was estimated that a total of 168.6 cancer cases (95% CrI: 30.1–421.1) will arise over life due to the ionising radiation exposure received during these CTs. Lifetime attributable risks per 100,000 exposed patients were highest for breast and lung cancer. The largest proportion of CTs was to the head and neck and hence the highest numbers of projected cancer cases were of thyroid and oral cavity/pharynx. Conclusions: Despite the undeniable medical effectiveness of CT scans, this risk assessment suggests a small excess in cancer cases which underlines the need for justification and optimisation in paediatric scanning. Given the intrinsic uncertainties of these risk projection exercises, care should be taken when interpreting the predicted risks. Keywords: CT scan, Risk, Cancer, Young population, Ionising radiation

Abstract Background Haemosporidians are the most important vector-borne parasites due to their cosmopolitan distribution and their wide range of hosts, including humans. Identification of their vectors is critical to highlight ecologically and epidemiologically relevant features such as host specificity or transmission routes. Biting midges of the genus Culicoides are considered the main vectors of Haemoproteus spp., yet important information on aspects such as vector feeding preferences or vector-host specificity involving haemosporidian parasites is frequently missing. Methods We assessed the abundance of Culicoides circumscriptus and C. paolae and blood sources of the latter at the nests of cavity-nesting bird species (mainly the European roller Coracias garrulus) and in their surroundings. We also explored the prevalence and genetic diversity of avian haemosporidians in parous females of both species. Results Both C. circumscriptus and C. paolae were abundant in the study area and common at European roller nests. Culicoides paolae had a diverse ornithophilic diet, feeding on at least seven bird species. Human DNA was also detected in the blood meal of some individuals. Four Haemoproteus lineages, including a new one reported here for the first time, were isolated from parous females of both biting midges. Conclusions Culicoides circumscriptus and C. paolae can play a locally important role in the transmission dynamics of Haemoproteus parasites in a community of cavity-nesting bird species in an arid ecosystem.

Alkhurma hemorrhagic fever virus RNA was detected in immature Hyalomma rufipes ticks infesting northward migratory birds caught in the North Mediterranean Basin. This finding suggests a role for birds in the ecology of the Alkhurma hemorrhagic fever virus and a potential mechanism for dissemination to novel regions. Increased surveillance is warranted.

Abstract Background Aedes vittatus is currently found in Africa, Asia and Europe, where it acts as a vector of pathogens causing animal and human diseases (e.g. chikungunya, Zika and dengue). Like other Aedes species, Ae. vittatus is able to breed in artificial containers. The ECDC has recently highlighted the need for molecular tools (i.e. barcoding characterization) that enable Aedes species to be identified in entomological surveys. Results We sampled mosquito larvae and adults in southern Spain and used a molecular approach to amplify and sequence a fragment of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 gene (barcoding region) of the mosquitoes. The blast comparison of the mosquito sequences isolated from Spain with those deposited in public databases provided a ≥ 99% similarity with sequences for two Aedes mosquitoes, Ae. vittatus and Ae. cogilli, while similarities with other Aedes species were ≤ 94%. Aedes cogilli is only present in India and there are no records of this species from Europe. Conclusions Due to the low genetic differences between Ae. vittatus and Ae. cogilli, the barcoding region should not be used as the only method for identifying Ae. vittatus, especially in areas where both of these Aedes species are present. This type of analysis should thus be combined with morphological identification using available keys and/or the characterization of other molecular markers. In addition, further entomological surveys should be conducted in order to identify the fine-scale distribution of this mosquito species in Europe.

Abstract Background Host selection by mosquitoes plays a central role in the transmission of vector-borne infectious diseases. Although interspecific variation in mosquito attraction has often been reported, the mechanisms underlying intraspecific differences in hosts’ attractiveness to mosquitoes are still poorly known. Metabolic rate is related to several physiological parameters used as location cues by mosquitoes, and so potentially affect host-vector contact rates. Therefore, individual hosts with higher metabolic rates should be more attractive to host-seeking mosquitoes. Here, we experimentally investigated the role of bird metabolic rate in the feeding preferences of Culex pipiens (Linnaeus), a widespread mosquito vector of many pathogens affecting human and wildlife health. Results Passer domesticus (Linnaeus) pairs containing one bird treated with 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP) and the other injected with phosphate-buffered saline solution (PBS) (i.e. control) were simultaneously exposed overnight to mosquitoes. The treatment did not affect the proportion of mosquitoes biting on each individual. However, mosquito feeding preference was negatively associated with bird resting metabolic rate but positively with bird body mass. These two variables explained up to 62.76% of the variations in mosquito feeding preference. Conclusions The relationships between mosquito feeding preferences and individual host characteristics could be explained by enhanced anti-mosquito behaviour associated with higher metabolic rates. The potential role of cues emitted by hosts is also discussed. Thus, individuals with high metabolism may actively avoid being bitten by mosquitoes, despite releasing more attractant cues. Since metabolic rates can be related to individual differences in personality and life history traits, differences in mosquitoes’ feeding preferences may be related to intraspecific differences in exposure to vector-borne pathogens.

Abstract Background Space use by animals is determined by the interplay between movement and the environment, and is thus mediated by habitat selection, biotic interactions and intrinsic factors of moving individuals. These processes ultimately determine home range size, but their relative contributions and dynamic nature remain less explored. We investigated the role of habitat selection, movement unrelated to habitat selection and intrinsic factors related to sex in driving space use and home range size in Iberian ibex, Capra pyrenaica. We used GPS collars to track ibex across the year in two different geographical areas of Sierra Nevada, Spain, and measured habitat variables related to forage and roost availability. Results By using integrated step selection analysis (iSSA), we show that habitat selection was important to explain space use by ibex. As a consequence, movement was constrained by habitat selection, as observed displacement rate was shorter than expected under null selection. Selection-independent movement, selection strength and resource availability were important drivers of seasonal home range size. Both displacement rate and directional persistence had a positive relationship with home range size while accounting for habitat selection, suggesting that individual characteristics and state may also affect home range size. Ibex living at higher altitudes, where resource availability shows stronger altitudinal gradients across the year, had larger home ranges. Home range size was larger in spring and autumn, when ibex ascend and descend back, and smaller in summer and winter, when resources are more stable. Therefore, home range size decreased with resource availability. Finally, males had larger home ranges than females, which might be explained by differences in body size and reproductive behaviour. Conclusions Movement, selection strength, resource availability and intrinsic factors related to sex determined home range size of Iberian ibex. Our results highlight the need to integrate and account for process dependencies, here the interdependence of movement and habitat selection, to understand how animals use space. This study contributes to understand how movement links environmental and geographical space use and determines home range behaviour in large herbivores.

We assessed the vector competence of Aedes caspius and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes in Spain for the transmission of Zika virus. Whereas Ae. albopictus mosquitoes were a competent vector, Ae. caspius mosquitoes were unable to transmit Zika virus. We also identified high levels of vertical transmission of Zika virus in Ae. albopictus mosquitoes.

Humans and wildlife are at risk from certain vector-borne diseases such as malaria, dengue, and West Nile and yellow fevers. Factors linked to global change, including habitat alteration, land-use intensification, the spread of alien species, and climate change, are operating on a global scale and affect both the incidence and distribution of many vector-borne diseases. Hence, understanding the drivers that regulate the transmission of pathogens in the wild is of great importance for ecological, evolutionary, health, and economic reasons. In this literature review, we discuss the ecological factors potentially affecting the transmission of two mosquito-borne pathogens circulating naturally between birds and mosquitoes, namely, West Nile virus (WNV) and the avian malaria parasites of the genus Plasmodium. Traditionally, the study of pathogen transmission has focused only on vectors or hosts and the interactions between them, while the role of landscape has largely been ignored. However, from an ecological point of view, it is essential not only to study the interaction between each of these organisms but also to understand the environmental scenarios in which these processes take place. We describe here some of the similarities and differences in the transmission of these two pathogens and how research into both systems may facilitate a greater understanding of the dynamics of vector-borne pathogens in the wild.

Abstract Conservation of migratory species faces the challenge of understanding the ecological requirements of individuals living in two geographically separated regions. In some cases, the entire population of widely distributed species congregates at relatively small wintering areas and hence, these areas become a priority for the species’ conservation. Satellite telemetry allows fine tracking of animal movements and distribution in those less known, often remote areas. Through integrating satellite and GPS data from five separated populations comprising most of the breeding range, we created a wide habitat suitability model for the Eleonora’s falcon on its wintering grounds in Madagascar. On this basis, we further investigated, for the first time, the impact of climate change on the future suitability of the species’ wintering areas. Eleonora’s falcons are mainly distributed in the north and along the east of Madagascar, exhibiting strong site fidelity over years. The current species’ distribution pattern is associated with climatic factors, which are likely related to food availability. The extent of suitable areas for Eleonora’s falcon is expected to increase in the future. The integration of habitat use information and climatic projections may provide insights on the consequences of global environmental changes for the long-term persistence of migratory species populations.

Abstract Background Brain tumor etiology is poorly understood. Based on their ability to pass through the blood–brain barrier, it has been hypothesized that exposure to metals may increase the risk of brain cancer. Results from the few epidemiological studies on this issue are limited and inconsistent. Methods We investigated the relationship between glioma risk and occupational exposure to five metals - lead, cadmium, nickel, chromium and iron- as well as to welding fumes, using data from the seven-country INTEROCC study. A total of 1800 incident glioma cases and 5160 controls aged 30–69 years were included in the analysis. Lifetime occupational exposure to the agents was assessed using the INTEROCC JEM, a modified version of the Finnish job exposure matrix FINJEM. Results In general, cases had a slightly higher prevalence of exposure to the various metals and welding fumes than did controls, with the prevalence among ever exposed ranging between 1.7 and 2.2% for cadmium to 10.2 and 13.6% for iron among controls and cases, respectively. However, in multivariable logistic regression analyses, there was no association between ever exposure to any of the agents and risk of glioma with odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) ranging from 0.8 (0.7–1.0) for lead to 1.1 (0.7–1.6) for cadmium. Results were consistent across models considering cumulative exposure or duration, as well as in all sensitivity analyses conducted. Conclusions Findings from this large-scale international study provide no evidence for an association between occupational exposure to any of the metals under scrutiny or welding fumes, and risk of glioma.

Abstract Background Relatively little is known about the prevalence of blood parasites in shorebirds, especially those breeding in the tropics. The prevalence of blood parasites of the genera Plasmodium, Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon was assessed in blood samples from Kentish plovers and cream-coloured coursers in Cape Verde, and samples of Kittlitz’s plovers, Madagascar plovers and white-fronted plovers in Madagascar. Results Only two of these samples were positive for Plasmodium: a Kittlitz’s plover was infected by a generalist lineage of Plasmodium that has already been reported in Europe and Africa, while in a white-fronted plover direct sequencing revealed a previously un-described Plasmodium lineage. Conclusion Potential explanations for the low prevalence of blood parasites include the scarcity of vectors in habitats used by these bird species and their resistance to parasitic infections.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Aedes invasive mosquitoes (AIMs) play a key role as vectors of several pathogens of public health relevance. Four species have been established in Europe, including Aedes aegypti, Aedesalbopictus, Aedes japonicus and Aedes koreicus. In addition, Aedes atropalpus has been repeatedly recorded although it has not yet been established. In spite of their importance in the transmission of endemic (e.g., heartworms) and imported pathogens (e.g., dengue virus), basic information of parameters affecting their vectorial capacity is poorly investigated. The aim of this study is to review the blood feeding patterns of these invasive mosquito species in Europe, summarizing available information from their native and introduced distribution ranges. The feeding patterns of mosquitoes constitute a key parameter affecting the contact rates between infected and susceptible hosts, thus playing a central role in the epidemiology of mosquito-borne pathogens. Our results highlight that these mosquito species feed on the blood of different vertebrate groups from ectotherms to birds and mammals. However, humans represent the most important source of blood for these species, accounting for 36% and 93% of hosts identified for Ae. japonicus and Ae. aegypti, respectively. In spite of that, limited information has been obtained for some particular species, such as Ae. koreicus, or it is restricted to a few particular areas. Given the high vector competence of the four AIM species for the transmission of different emerging arboviruses such as dengue, Chikungunya, Zika or Yellow fever viruses and their high feeding rates on humans, these AIM species may have an important impact on the vectorial capacity for such pathogens on urban and periurban areas. Finally, we propose directions for future research lines based on identified knowledge gaps.

Alien mosquito and vertebrate host species may create novel epidemiological scenarios for the transmission of pathogens naturally circulating in the invaded area. The exotic Monk parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus) has established populations in Europe and is currently considered an invasive pest. Due to their high abundance in urban areas, Monk parakeets could be involved in the transmission of pathogens, potentially affecting wildlife and livestock. To test this hypothesis, we determined the prevalence and diversity of three vector-borne parasites, namely Plasmodium, Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon, in Monk parakeets from Barcelona. Many areas of southern Europe shelter high densities of the invasive Asian tiger mosquito Aedes albopictus, which in addition to native mosquito species could affect the transmission of mosquito-borne parasites, such as avian Plasmodium. Thus, we also sampled mosquitoes in the area to trace their blood-feeding hosts and determine the presence of Plasmodium parasites. Monk parakeets were neither infected by Plasmodium nor by Haemoproteus parasites, and only five individuals (3.13%; n = 160) were infected by Leucocytozoon. Monk parakeets were bitten by Culiseta longiareolata and represented 9.5% of Culex pipiens blood meals. The invasive Ae. albopictus showed a clear anthropophilic feeding pattern, with humans dominating its diet. Three Plasmodium lineages were detected in pools of Cx pipiens. These results suggest that Plasmodium circulating in the area cannot develop in the invasive Monk parakeet, in spite of the relatively high fraction of native mosquito vectors feeding on this species in its invaded distribution range.

Global warming and direct anthropogenic impacts, such as water extraction, largely affect water budgets in Mediterranean wetlands, thereby increasing wetland salinities and isolation, and decreasing water depths and hydroperiods (duration of the inundation period). These wetland features are key elements structuring waterbird communities. However, the ultimate and net consequences of these dynamic conditions on waterbird assemblages are largely unknown. We combined regular sampling of waterbird presence through one annual cycle with in-situ data on relevant environmental predictors of waterbird distribution to model habitat selection for 69 species in a typical Mediterranean wetland network in southwestern Spain. Species associations with environmental features were subsequently used to predict changes in habitat suitability for each species under three climate change scenarios (encompassing changes in environmental predictors that ranged from 10% to 50% change as predicted by regional climatic models). Waterbirds distributed themselves unevenly throughout environmental gradients and water salinity was the most important gradient structuring the distribution of the community. Environmental suitability for the guilds of diving birds and vegetation gleaners will decline in future climate scenarios, while many small wading birds will benefit from changing conditions. Resident species and those that breed in this wetland network will also be more negatively impacted than those using this area for wintering or stopover. We provide a tool that can be used in a horizon-scanning framework to identify emerging issues in waterbird conservation and to anticipate suitable management actions.

Recent publications reported that children in disadvantaged areas undergo more CT scanning than others. The present study is aimed to assess the potential differences in CT imaging by socioeconomic status (SES) in Spanish young scanned subjects and if such differences vary with different indicators or different time point SES measurements. The associations between CT scanning and SES, and between the CT scan rate per patient and SES were investigated in the Spanish EPI-CT subcohort. Various SES indicators were studied to determine whether particular SES dimensions were more closely related to the probability of undergoing one or multiple CTs. Comparisons were made with indices based on 2001 and 2011 censuses. We found evidence of socio-economic variation among young people, mainly related to autonomous communities of residence. A slightly higher rate of scans per patient of multiple body parts in the less affluent categories was observed, possibly reflecting a higher rate of accidents and violence in these groups. The number of CT scans per patient was higher both in the most affluent and the most deprived categories and somewhat lower in the intermediate groups. This relation varied with the SES indicator used, with lower CT scans per patients in categories of high unemployment and temporary work, but not depending on categories of unskilled work or illiteracy. The relationship between these indicators and number of CTs in 2011 was different than that seen with the 2001 census, with the number of CTs increasing with higher unemployment. Overall we observed some differences in the SES distribution of scanned patients by Autonomous Community in Spain. There was, however, no major differences in the frequency of CT scans per patient by SES overall, based on the 2001 census. The use of different indicators and of SES data collected at different time points led to different relations between SES and frequency of CT scans, outlining the difficulty of adequately capturing the social and economic dimensions which may affect health and health service utilisation.