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Research highlights the importance of the culture and context created in schools and the impact the environment can have on brain development, thoughts, feelings, and actions (Eisler & Fry, 2019). Traditional in-school approaches to supporting behaviour focus on using consequences to manage behaviour. Within the current body of psychological and pedagogical literature, concerns have been raised about the effectiveness and negative impact of using punitive approaches. This systematic review (chapter 2) aimed to explore the perspectives and experiences of children and young people (CYP) on punitive behaviour management policies and practices used in schools. A systematic review of the literature resulted in the identification of 12 papers. Papers were evaluated using an adapted version of the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (2019) and study findings were analysed using thematic synthesis. The findings highlighted CYP's varied and diverse perceptions of punitive approaches. The fairness and consistency of punitive approaches was debated amongst CYP as well as the impact on academic development. The negative impact on emotional wellbeing and the limited long-term effectiveness of using the approaches was highlighted. CYP expressed their thoughts for alternative approaches and outlined a need to feel listened to, understood and supported with their behaviour and emotions. Findings are framed in the context of both psychological literature and current educational thinking and practice. Implications for school staff, educational professionals and UK policy makers are outlined. The empirical paper (chapter 3) aimed to capture the perspectives of UK primary school staff regarding the advantages and disadvantages of different behaviour support approaches, in addition to the facilitators and barriers to adopting compassionate and nurturing approaches. Virtual semi-structured interviews were conducted with 15 school staff across three mainstream primary schools. Interviews included the completion of two Personal Construct Psychology (PCP) activities and a discussion based on a short description of a fictional school. A reflexive thematic analysis resulted in the identification of nine themes. Participants commented on the different approaches' flexibility, familiarity, potential for positive long-term behaviour change and impact on emotional wellbeing and relationships. Key facilitators to adopting compassionate and nurturing approaches included: whole-school training and understanding; quality and type of training; and working together and feeling supported. Key barriers included: difficulty with changing perspectives; ease of implementation and familiarity; scarcity of resources; and persisting in the face of difficulties. Themes are discussed in light of psychological research and implications for educational practitioners are considered.

Carnosine (β-alanyl-L-histidine), a histidine containing dipeptide, is one of the most abundant small-molecular compounds in human skeletal muscle. Supplementation with the rate limiting amino acid, β-alanine, has resulted in significant improvements to high-intensity exercise performance. The role of carnosine as an intracellular pH buffer is undisputable, yet other physiological roles have been proposed, including the potential influence of increased carnosine content on regulation of skeletal muscle calcium (Ca2+) kinetics. The movement of Ca2+ is vital during both skeletal muscle contraction and relaxation phases. The overall aim of this thesis was to investigate the effect of β-alanine supplementation on voluntary and electrically evoked contractile properties of in-vivo human skeletal muscle. To examine this research question, there were several aims of this thesis, initially to examine the effect of β-alanine supplementation on intrinsic in-vivo isometric knee extensor force production and skeletal muscle contractility in both fresh and fatigued human skeletal muscle in young (Studies 1 and 2; Chapters 4 and 5) and older (Study 3; Chapter 6) adults. The distribution of the carnosine molecule across subcellular fractions within rat skeletal muscle tissue was explored, as well as the impact of increased carnosine availability on ATPase activity, a measure associated with skeletal muscle relaxation, estimated by Pi generation. In young adults, 28-days of β-alanine supplementation did not significantly influence voluntary and evoked force responses, or the force-frequency relationship, the in-vivo analogue of the force-Ca2+ relationship, in either fresh (Studies 1 and 2; Chapters 4 and 5) or fatigued (Study 2; Chapter 5) skeletal muscle. Furthermore, older adults experiencing pre-existing declines in skeletal muscle function due to ageing, demonstrated no beneficial effect of 28-days β-alanine supplementation on voluntary or electrically evoked skeletal muscle contractions (Study 3; Chapter 6). In young adults, there was, however, a significant decline in skeletal muscle half-relaxation time (HRT) during electrically evoked octet contractions, resting and potentiated twitches (Studies 1 and 2; Chapters 4 and 5). Two possible steps influence skeletal muscle relaxation speed include the Ca2+ removal from the myoplasm and Ca2+ dissociation from troponin followed by cross-bridge detachment. Based on the in-vivo research, it was proposed that there was a direct or indirect mechanism associated with activity of the sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase (SERCA) pump, the proposed rate-limiting step of muscle relaxation. In-vitro analysis of ATPase activity demonstrated that SERCA activity was unaffected by increased carnosine concentrations, although there was a significant increase in overall ATPase activity (Study 4; Chapter 7). The results in this thesis showed that β-alanine supplementation was effective in improving skeletal muscle HRT in young adults, although not in healthy older adults. The exact mechanism associated with the in-vivo decline in skeletal muscle HRT remains unclear, yet raising the availability of carnosine in-vitro, does increase overall ATPase activity, although not Ca2+-dependent or SERCA activity.