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The question of whether food webs are resource or predation controlled is crucial for the development of sustainable IPM strategies in agriculture. Many IPM studies focus on top–down control, while little is known about bottom–up effects. Here, we unravelled the bottom–up interactions between rosy apple aphid (RAA) Dysaphis plantaginea and 13 apple cultivars in north-eastern Belgium. Population dynamics, apple leaf damage, preference and performance measurements were used to determine the interactions between RAA and apple cultivars. Seasonal abundances and RAA-infested shoots were significantly affected by the cultivar. The cultivars Fuji, Granny Smith, Jonagold and Cripps Pink harboured clearly higher numbers of aphids compared to other cultivars, especially Red Delicious. Regarding leaf damage degree, Fuji was significantly the most impacted, while the lowest damage was recorded on Red Delicious. The potential apparent competition among apple cultivars was evaluated using RAA overlap diagrams. By acting as a potential source of RAA, a particular cultivar can considerably affect other nearby cultivars. In host selection bioassays, significant differences in the choice behaviour of RAA were found in the laboratory for different apple cultivars. Other important findings from the reproduction–offspring performance bioassays revealed that while Fuji stimulated high production of nymphs, their development remained retarded on Fuji, compared to especially Boskoop on which significantly lower numbers of nymphs occurred. Our study provides a promising insight into the importance of studying apple–RAA interactions within an eco-friendly RAA management tactic.

The volatile profiles in the pulp of 85 apple cultivars was evaluated based upon headspace solid–phase microextraction (HS–SPME) combined with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). A total of 70 volatile compounds were identified, including 43 esters, 7 alcohols, 11 aldehydes, 2 acids, 2 ketones, and 5 others. Hexyl acetate, (E)-2-hexenal, estragole, 2-methylbutyl acetate, 1-hexanol and butyl acetate were the most abundant volatile compounds (average content > 30 µg/kg fresh weight, FW). The aroma profiles showed significant differences between apple cultivars. Cultivars Dongguang and Jazz contained the most volatile types (46), in contrast with Granny Smith and Huashuo, which contained the least types of volatiles (16). Jonagold had the highest volatile content (2133.86 µg/kg FW), while the volatile content in Ruiyang was only 26.60 µg/kg FW. On the basis of principal components analysis (PCA), 85 apple cultivars were clustered into 6 groups. This work on establishing the integrated volatile profiles for the 85 apple cultivars would help for the future breeding and improvement of apple aroma.

The firmness of Jonagold apples is an important quality attribute during postharvest chain. However, postharvest handlers are faced with variability in the firmness that exists within apples even of those of the same batch and cultivar. Here, Jonagold apples were stored at 1 °C and 4 °C with different controlled atmospheric gas compositions for 170 d, and then exposed to shelf-life conditions for 15 d, and other portion of apples was immediately stored to shelf-life scenario for 21 d. The firmness and ethylene emission of the apples were quantified during storage. A kinetic model equation was established to predict the firmness breakdown of apples depending on storage conditions. The model was based on a stochastic technique that incorporated biological variability in firmness. A relative sensitivity analysis was carried out to analyse the utmost stochastic parameters and fruit-specific data were obtained. The Monte Carlo method was applied to predict how the initial fruit variability in firmness within Jonagold apples propagates throughout the postharvest storage. The simulation outputs suggest that the model established in study may be useful to manage the biological variability and describe how the initial firmness variability propagates during the postharvest chain.

In this study, the development of an apple derived extract was put forward as a possible valorization of “rebu” fruit, also known as lost fruit. From nine Belgian apple varieties, extracts were made of lost fruit, fruit which is not picked at harvest time, in ecologically responsible ways. The extraction of phenolic compounds was performed by ultrasonic and enzyme assisted extraction on the nine apple varieties. Compared to extracts prepared with enzymes, ultrasound treatments significantly increased the average amount of polyphenols (p

Fruit safety plays an important role in the economy of the world for the agriculture field. Recently, it has been noticed that fruits are affected by various diseases. This creates economic failure in the agriculture field across the world. The manual investigation of multiple varieties of an apple fruit is a burdensome task that can be minimized for quality evaluation for fresh and rotten fruits using automatic computerized methods. In this work, a novel method is implemented for multiple varieties of apple fruit quality evaluation. The six different varieties of apples i.e. Fuji, York, Golden Delicious, Red Delicious, Granny Smith, and Jonagold are used for image acquisition. Firstly, images are segmented by the grab-cut method and fuzzy c-means clustering. Secondly, multiple features statistical, textural, geometrical, discrete wavelet transform, a histogram of the oriented gradient, and Laws’ texture energy are extracted and selected by principal component analysis from the feature space. Lastly, the classification of fresh and rotten apples is done by applying k-NN, LR, SRC, and SVM classifiers. The cross-validation technique with distinct values of k is used to validate the performance of the system. The proposed method achieves 92.90% (k = 5), 98.42% (k = 10), and 95.27% (k = 15) accuracy by SVM classifier. It has been seen that the extraction of proper features and selection of features results in upgraded performance. Also, the state of the art techniques are comparable with the proposed algorithm showing the probability to use for multiple fruits.

Woolly apple aphid (WAA),Eriosoma lanigerum(Hausmann) (Hemiptera: Pemphigidae), is a worldwide quarantine pest of apples. Understanding the resistance mechanism of various cultivars to WAA is important for the selection for durable resistance. Few studies have examined the resistance of different apple cultivars to WAA in China; among common varieties produced in China, Red Fuji is highly sensitive to WAA. In this study, the resistance to WAA of Red Fuji and three other common cultivars—Starkrimson, Jonagold, and Ralls Genet—was assessed based on the developmental and reproductive biological characteristics of aphids, assessed under four fixed temperatures: 20, 25, 30, and 35 ℃. We found the optimal temperature for WAA growth and reproduction to be 20–25 ℃, at which temperature, aphids on Red Fuji showed the highest rate of reproduction, the highest number of colonies, and the greatest area covered by aphid colonies among the four cultivars. These attributes of WAA were significantly higher at 20–25 ℃ than at 30 ℃. On Red Fuji, the most favorable variety, WAA showed its highest net reproductive rate (127.3 ± 13.3), intrinsic growth rate (0.30 ± 0.01), highest growth rate of the colony area (1.35 ± 0.02), and the lowest average generation time (16.1 ± 0.8 day) at 25 ℃. The aphids inoculated onto the four tested cultivars all died within 1 week at 35 ℃. Overall, Red Fuji was highly susceptible, while Starkrimson, Jonagold, and Ralls Genet were partially resistant.

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of natural and encapsulated sources of ursolic acid on liver regeneration. Four ursolate sources were tested. Two forms of ursolic acid encapsulates were combined with cyclodextrins, i.e., gamma-CD (gCD) and beta-CD, and two natural sources were adjusted by homogenization (HAP) and micronization of apple peel using Jonagold apples. All ursolate forms were applied intragastrically in daily doses of 20 mg for 7 days. Laboratory rats were fed with standard laboratory diet. Further, gCD and MAP were also tested with a high-fat diet (6 weeks). Partial hepatectomy (PH) was performed 24 hours before the end of the experiment. The concentration of plasma hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) was determined with an immunoassay; simultaneously, the expression of HGF and CYP7A1 in the liver was quantified through qPCR. HGF expression and plasma levels were significantly increased 24 hours after PH in both the HAP (p=0.038) and HFgCD groups (p=0.036), respectively. The correlation between HGF expression and plasma values was significant (p=0.04). The positive effects on liver regeneration were found in both the gCD and HAP forms of ursolic acid, whose effects were confirmed through the upregulation of HGF.

Ekolojiye uygun tür ve türlere ait çeşitlerin tespiti, üretimin, sürdürülebilir ve ekonomik olması bakımından son derece önemlidir. Bu bağlamda yürütülen çalışmada, Isparta ekolojik koşullarında yetiştirilen üç farklı elma çeşidinin (‘Arapkızı’, ‘Fuji Kiku’ ve ‘Jonagold’), yöresel adaptasyonu ile ilgili sonuçlara yer verilmiştir. Ayrıca çalışılan özellikler arasında, korelasyonlar hesaplanarak, bu özelliklerin birlikte ele alınma potansiyelleri ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Tam çiçeklenme, ilk olarak ‘Jonagold’ çeşidinde görülürken (17.04), hasadı en son yapılan ‘Fuji Kiku’ çeşidinin (22.09), aynı zamanda hasat olumuna ulaşmak için en uzun süreye (156 gün) ihtiyaç duyduğu da tespit edilmiştir. Ağaç başına en yüksek verim, 22.35 kg ağaç-1 ile ‘Arapkızı’ çeşidinden elde edilirken, ‘Jonagold’ 13.68 kg ağaç-1 ile bu özellik bakımından en düşük değerde bulunmuştur. Pomolojik özelliklerden meyve eni, boyu ve ağırlığı özellikleri en düşük ‘Fuji Kiku’, en yüksek ise ‘Jonagold’ çeşidinde ölçülmüş olup, sırası ile 66.44–73.17 mm, 55.52–63.34 mm ve 134.11–183.11 g aralıklarında tespit edilmiştir. Verim ile meyve boyu (-0.33) ve ağırlığı (-0.19) arasında negatif korelasyon tespit edilirken, belirtilen pomolojik özelliklerin, kabuk üst a değeri, titre edilebilir asit miktarı ve tam çiçeklenmeden hasada geçen süre özellikleri ile pozitif ilişki içerisinde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Elde edilen sonuçlar doğrultusunda, sık dikime en uygun çeşidin ‘Arapkızı’ olduğu, meyve boyutları, ağırlığı ve renk değerleri bakımından ise ‘Jonagold’ çeşidinin ön plana çıktığı söylenebilir.

Biocontrol agents (BCAs) are commonly sprayed on flowering pipfruit trees to prevent them from getting infected by various pathogens. By entomovectoring, BCAs can be directly delivered onto the flowers. However, we currently lack knowledge on the distribution dynamics of BCAs by pollinators. Here, managed bees, both bumble bees (Bombus terrestris) and mason bees (Osmia bicornisandOsmia cornuta), were placed in the vicinity of flowering pipfruit trees (pear -'Conference', and apple-'Svatava' and 'Jonagold'), and this allowed us to investigate the distribution of a model BCA, namely, Serenade (R) MAX, from spray-inoculated flowers of a centralized tree to non-inoculated flowers of surrounding receiver trees by bees in an experimental setup in outdoor conditions. One hour after inoculation, we detected an enrichment of BCA in the flowers of the receiver trees and this for each tested pipfruit. The distribution of BCA from treated to untreated flowers was homogenous between the receiver trees for 'Svatava', while significantly different loads were detected for both 'Conference' and 'Jonagold', which might be due to differences in environmental factors, and/or bee characteristics. More research is needed to understand the distribution dynamics of BCAs by pollinators in field conditions, such as in commercial orchards or crop fields, and how this could result in an efficient control.

The preference and behavioral mechanism of the feeding behavior of the woolly apple aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum (Hausmann), on Chinese apple cultivars was investigated using the electrical penetration graph (EPG) technique. Feeding of adult aphids was assessed for the four main cultivars of apple in China (Red Fuji, Ralls Genet, Starkrimson, and Jonagold) over an 8-h monitoring period, what that of fourth-instar nymphs was assessed for 8 h on Jonagold only. EPG waveforms representing the details of probing behaviors, parameters were measured for analysis. We found that at the nonphloem phase, the total duration of the nonpenetration (np) waveform and the total duration of the stylet pathway phase (the ‘C wave’) on Ralls Genet and Starkrimson were significantly longer than on Red Fuji. In addition, the phloem-feeding phase, the total duration of ‘release of saliva into the phloem’, (the E1 waveform) was significantly longer on Ralls Genet and Jonagold than on Red Fuji. The total duration of the ‘ingestion from sieve cells’ phase (the E2 waveform) on Red Fuji, meanwhile, was significantly longer than on Ralls Genet or Starkrimson. At the same time, when combined with EPG parameters, Red Fuji was found to have no obvious resistance to woolly apple aphid and to be a susceptible cultivar. This experiment also recorded the feeding waveform of fourth-instar aphid nymphs. Based on the phloem and nonphloem parameters recorded in this study, it was inferred that adult aphids are more likely than nymphs to feed on apple trees.

Nitrogen (N) deficiency is a common problem for apple (Malus×domestica) production in arid regions of China. However, N utilization efficiency (NUE) of different apple cultivars grown under low N conditions in arid regions has not been evaluated. In this study, NUE was assessed for one-year-old seedlings of six apple cultivars, Golden Delicious, Qinguan, Jonagold, Honeycrisp, Fuji and Pink Lady, grafted onto Malus hupehensis Rehd. rootstocks. Four treatments were used, including control water with control N (CWCN), limited water with control N (LWCN), control water with low N (CWLN) and limited water with low N (LWLN). Our results showed that growth indices such as biomass, plant height and stem diameter, and photosynthetic rate of all cultivars decreased in the order CWCN>CWLN>LWCN>LWLN. When subjected to LWLN treatment, Qinguan showed better growth and photosynthetic characters than other tested cultivars. Additionally, Qinguan and Pink Lady had higher NUE, while Honeycrisp and Jonagold had lower NUE, based on the determination of biomass, photosynthetic parameters, chlorophyll content, the maximal photochemical efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm), 15N and N contents.

Both mycorrhizal and Trichoderma spp. fungi are known for antagonistic effects against certain biological pathogens causing apple replant disease (ARD). The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of the bioinoculants based on endomycorrhizal and Trichoderma spp. fungi on the biological properties of soil as well as the parameters of the apple tree growths in a fruit tree nursery under replantation conditions. A two-year experiment was conducted on Jonagold apple trees grafted on to M.9 rootstock in western Poland. The trees were planted in the replant soil—from areas used for the production of apple trees, and in the crop rotation soil, that had not been used for nursery purposes before. A mycorrhizal inoculum and preparations containing Trichoderma spp. fungi were applied to the replant soil. Biological properties of the soil and the growth of the aerial and underground parts of the apple trees were assessed. The enzymatic (dehydrogenases and protease) and respiratory activity of the replant soil was significantly lower than that of the crop rotation soil. The apple trees grew worse when exposed to the ARD conditions. The effectiveness of applied bioinoculants in mitigating the effects of replantation in the nursery were shown. Both the treatment mycorrhization and the application of bioinoculants containing Trichoderma spp. increased the respiratory and enzymatic activity of the replant soil. The growth of the root system and the aerial parts of the trees (including leaves) was much better after the combined use of both types of fungi than in the replant soil that had not received the fungal treatment.

Being able to ascertain the physiological condition of the buds on a young apple tree before bud burst could help farmers manage their orchards more efficiently, especially if they could do so without destroying the buds in the process. The experiments carried out in this study were conducted with the aim of distinguishing shoot from non-shoot buds before bud burst using a visible/near-infrared spectrometer, a device that does not destroy the buds being tested. Tests on spring-planted (April 30, 2021) trees were conducted to check shoot and non-shoot bud physiology and the winter dormancy of young ‘Jonagold’, ‘Miyabi Fuji’ and ‘Orin’ apple trees. The light absorbance of the shoot buds before bud burst was much lower than the light absorbance of the non-shoot buds as checked on the visible/near-infrared spectrometer. The highest first factor effect was determined by a PCA test conducted on shoot and non-shoot ‘Jonagold’ buds (99.9%) at a range of 640-652 nm, ‘Miyabi Fuji’ buds (99.7%) at 654-680 nm and ‘Orin’ buds (99.6%) at 704-766 nm seven days before bud burst. We also found that the highest level of accuracy, using the Classifier analysis, between shoot and non-shoot ‘Jonagold’ buds (76.6%) was one day before bud burst, for ‘Miyabi Fuji’ buds (82.1%) it was three days before and for ‘Orin’ buds (76.3%) it was two days before. These findings suggest that growers can more effectively manage the development of the young trees in their orchards with a visible/near-infrared spectrometer.

Dietary antioxidants can be an important part of the healthy diet. Polyphenols from the commonly consumed apple can be possible sources of intake of these phytochemicals. In our study, the antioxidant properties of six apple cultivars (Golden Delicious, Granny Smiths, Idared, Jonagold, Jonagored and Mutsu) harvested at commercial maturity were examined. Flesh and skin were separated and total phenolics by the Folin-Ciocalteu assay, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and radical scavenging activities using DPPH method were determined for each. For all apples, polyphenol content and antioxidant activity of the skin were significantly higher than that of the flesh showing that apple peel is a valuable part of the fruit. There was a good linear correlation between the polyphenol content and FRAP showing that mainly polyphenols are responsible for this type of antioxidant reaction. Regarding the cultivars, there was an obvious difference between the antioxidant activities of the examined apples. The green variety Granny Smith showed the best results followed by the red-skin apples while yellow-skin apples had the lowest activity.

Purpose. On the basis of a comprehensive study of the characteristics of growth, development, fruiting and quality of the fruits of spontaneous mutants of the apple tree (Malus domestica Borkh.) of ‘Jonagold’ variety, select clones which differ from the original variety in tree growth strength and are superior in yield, marketability, fruit keeping quality and economic production efficiency of the latter.Methods. Field, laboratory, comparison, generalization and mathematical statistics.Results. The results of studying the growth and fruiting characteristics of 20 Ukrainian spontaneous clones of ‘Jonagold’ variety in the conditions of the Western Forest-Steppe of Ukraine are presented. It is revealed that plants of the studied clones did not differ in terms of beginning and duration of the main phenological phases and vegetation period from the varieties widely distributed and well adapted to Podillia conditions. The harvesting ripeness of the clone fruits came in the second or third decades of September with a difference of seven days. Trees of most clones (DP-4, DP-5, DP-9, DP-10, DP-13, DP-14 and DP-17) were medium-growing. The yield of five to eight-year-old clone plantations was 12.1–32.3 t/ha, which provided cost-effective cultivation in the conditions of Podillia, the level of production profitability was 66–242%. All spontaneous mutants formed fruits larger than average size (except for DP-20, forming large ones), which are beautiful, elegant and vary in the intensity and character of the skin color depending on the clone. The clones DP-1, DP-3, DP-17, DP-18 and DP-19 were distinguished by a high yield of fruits of the highest and first grade.The clones DP-1, DP-3, DP-17, DP-18 and DP-19 were marked by the highest yield of apples of the higher and the first commodity grade, and this property was significantly superior to the yield of the control variety. The tested clones are divided into three groups according to the fruit ripening dates: early winter, winter, and late winter.Conclusions. A long-term assessment of the objects of study revealed that the biological properties Ukrainian clones of ‘Jonagold’ variety correspond to the climatic conditions of the Western Forest-Steppe ofUkraine. Most of them belong to the medium-growth group (DP-4, DP-5, DP-9, DP-10, DP-13, DP-14 and DP-17) and are characterized by a mixed type of fruiting. Clones DP-1, DP-3, DP-17, DP-18 and DP-19 were distinguished by a high yield of fruits of the highest and first commodity grade. According to the main indicators of fruit quality, clones DP-3, DP-8, DP-13, DP-14, DP-16, DP-17, DP-18 and DP-20 were recognized as the best; the highest economic efficiency of apple production in Podillia was provided by clones DP-14, DP-17, DP-18 and DP-19. The latter ones are recommended for registration in “The State Register of plant varieties suitable for dissemination inUkraine”, as promising clones for introduction into planting for the production of fruits of universal purpose in the zone of the Western Forest-Steppe ofUkraine.

The effects of 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) treatment, storage time, and shelf life and temperature on phenolic concentrations and antioxidant activity in apple peel and flesh of ‘Jonagold’ apple (Malus domestica Borkh) have been investigated. Hyperoside and chlorogenic acid were the most abundant phenolic compounds in the peel and flesh, respectively. The flesh had lower concentrations of individual phenolics, total phenolics, flavonoids and lower antioxidant activity (determined by 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assay) than the peel. In addition, the profiles of phenolics as well as the changing patterns of individual phenolics also differed between the peel and the flesh. After long-time storage (180 d), the greatest decrease of concentrations was the concentrations of hyperoside (27 %) in the peel and total phenolics (35 %) in the flesh. Also, during the 90–180 d storage period, hyperoside and rutin in the peel, chlorogenic acid in the flesh, and flavonoids and antioxidant activity decreased in both peel and flesh tissues. Individual phenolics exhibited different stabilities during the early stages after harvest. 1-MCP reduced the reduction in the concentrations of hyperoside in the peel, chlorogenic acid in the flesh, and total phenolics, flavonoids and antioxidant activity in both the peel and flesh tissues during storage and shelf life. However, for quercetin and rutin, the protective effect of 1-MCP was only observed during the shelf life period. Overall, phenolic compounds responded variously to storage, shelf life, shelf temperature and 1-MCP treatment.

Storing ‘Jonagold’ apple (Malus x domestica Borkh. cv. ‘Jonagold’) closer to their anaerobic compensation point during dynamic controlled atmosphere storage may delay fruit ripening more effectively, but can also induce low-oxygen stress in the fruit leading to the induction of fermentation. Knowledge of the in vivo regulatory mechanism of the fermentative metabolism in plants is still limited. We exposed ‘Jonagold’ apple tissue slices to different oxygen partial pressures (0, 0.3, 0.5, 1, 5 and 21 kPa O2) and temperatures (1 °C and 18 °C) at harvest and after 6 months of storage. A combination of experimental techniques and a kinetic modelling approach was used to translate the in vitro measured enzyme activity into in vivo activities and to provide new insights in the regulation of the fermentative metabolism. The regulation of the fermentative metabolism appeared to be highly flexible as it depends largely on the conditions applied. Temperature is known to increase the overall metabolic reaction rate, which appeared to have a large influence on the induction and regulation of the fermentative metabolism. Furthermore, the model indicated that the in vivo regulation of the fermentative metabolism was different under anoxic (0 kPa O2) and hypoxic conditions (0.3, 0.5 and 1 kPa O2) and that an extra regulation was present after 6 months of storage. Even though fermentation was clearly induced under all the experimental conditions applied, the flux through the fermentative metabolism started to decrease again after prolonged low-oxygen stress.

Fruit production is of major importance in Flanders, with a production of 318,000 t of apples and 374,000 t of pears (2014), with ‘Jonagold’ and ‘Conference’ as main cultivars, respectively. In apple, it is believed that cross pollination can increase yield and improve yield stability and fruit quality, therefore, pollen donors are planted within the orchard, and pollinators such as honeybees (Apis mellifera L.) are commonly introduced. In contrast to apple, pear growers pay little attention to pollination. One problem is the limited attractiveness of pear nectar for pollinators, probably because of the relatively low sugar concentration and/or unattractive sugar composition. In this contribution we monitored the pollinator activity in an apple and pear orchard after introducing managed bumblebee hives, on the base of standardized transect walks. Furthermore, we compared the sugar content in the nectar between apple and pear flowers. Overall, flower visitation by bumblebees was very low, especially for pear where no bumblebees were observed. A first analysis confirms our hypothesis of higher sugar concentrations in the nectar of apple flowers (‘Jonagold’) compared to pear flowers (‘Conference’). Furthermore, the percentage of sucrose was noticeably lower in pear nectar (3%) compared to apple nectar (63%). This likely explains the low attractiveness of pear flowers compared to apple.

The use of size-controlling rootstocks is central to modern high-density fruit production systems. While biological mechanisms responsible for vigor control are not fully understood, differences in water relations and carbohydrate storage ability have been suggested as two potential factors. To better understand the processes that control growth vigor, we analyzed the trunk radial variation at seasonal and diurnal timescales and measured the midday leaf water potential (ΨMD), leaf gas exchange and concentrations of non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) in apple trees of variety ‘Jonagold’ grafted on two rootstocks of contrasting growth vigor (dwarfing J-TE-G vs invigorating J-TE-H). The measurements were conducted during an exceptionally hot and dry summer. We found that smaller annual trunk radial increments in dwarfed trees were primarily due to an earlier cessation of trunk secondary growth. The interdiurnal trunk circumference changes (ΔC) were slightly lower in dwarfed trees, and these trees also had fewer days with positive ΔC values, particularly during the driest summer months. The trunks of dwarfed trees shrank gradually during the drought, showed less pronounced diurnal variation of trunk circumference and the maximum trunk daily shrinkage was only weakly responsive to the vapor pressure deficit. These results indicated that lower turgidity in the cambial region may have limited the trunk radial expansion in dwarfed trees during the hot and dry days. Dwarfed trees also maintained lower ΨMD and leaf gas exchange rates during the summer drought. These parameters decreased in parallel for both rootstock combinations, suggesting their similar drought sensitivity. Similar concentrations and seasonal dynamics of NSC in both rootstock combinations, together with their similar spring growth rates, suggest that NSC reserves were not directly limiting for growth. Our results support the prominent role of water relations in rootstock-induced size-controlling mechanisms and highlight the complexity of this topic.

Significance Fruit aroma influences herbivory and food choice by humans, ultimately affecting seed dispersal and plant reproductive success. Despite the significance of scent, our understanding of the biosynthesis of odor-active volatiles is incomplete. Herein, we detail a plant pathway that uses pyruvate and acetyl-CoA to form citramalic acid and, through a series of recursive reactions that bypass regulation at threonine deaminase, enables 1-C α-ketoacid elongation and synthesis of isoleucine and straight and branched chain esters. The initiating enzyme, citramalate synthase, is a neofunctionalized form of 2-isopropylmalate synthase that is insensitive to feedback inhibition. Engagement of the “citramalate pathway” in ripening fruit provides for an elevated and persistent production of isoleucine and volatile esters as fruit tissues ripen, age, and senesce., A plant pathway that initiates with the formation of citramalate from pyruvate and acetyl-CoA by citramalate synthase (CMS) is shown to contribute to the synthesis of α-ketoacids and important odor-active esters in apple (Malus × domestica) fruit. Microarray screening led to the discovery of a gene with high amino acid similarity to 2-isopropylmalate synthase (IPMS). However, functional analysis of recombinant protein revealed its substrate preference differed substantially from IPMS and was more typical of CMS. MdCMS also lacked the regulatory region present in MdIPMS and was not sensitive to feedback inhibition. 13C-acetate feeding of apple tissue labeled citramalate and α-ketoacids in a manner consistent with the presence of the citramalate pathway, labeling both straight- and branched-chain esters. Analysis of genomic DNA (gDNA) revealed the presence of two nearly identical alleles in “Jonagold” fruit (MdCMS_1 and MdCMS_2), differing by two nonsynonymous single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). The mature proteins differed only at amino acid 387, possessing either glutamine387 (MdCMS_1) or glutamate387 (MdCMS_2). Glutamate387 was associated with near complete loss of activity. MdCMS expression was fruit-specific, increasing severalfold during ripening. The translated protein product was detected in ripe fruit. Transient expression of MdCMS_1 in Nicotiana benthamiana induced the accumulation of high levels of citramalate, whereas MdCMS_2 did not. Domesticated apple lines with MdCMS isozymes containing only glutamate387 produced a very low proportion of 2-methylbutanol- and 2-methylbutanoate (2MB) and 1-propanol and propanoate (PROP) esters. The citramalate pathway, previously only described in microorganisms, is shown to function in ripening apple and contribute to isoleucine and 2MB and PROP ester biosynthesis without feedback regulation.

The apple tree gene pool was evaluated by resistance to adverse winter conditions based on the analysis of weather data for 50 years. 70% of winter-hardy and highly winter-hardy cultivars were revealed in the group of traditional local cultivars. Many local Central Russian cultivars are widely used in the breeding of new winter-hardy cultivars in central Russia, the Volga region, the Urals, Siberia, the Altai, the Far East and the south of the country. Positive results were obtained by using cultivars obtained from stepped crossbreeding, combining a complex of valuable qualities (winter resistance, immunity to scab, high qualities of fruits) in selection. On the basis of damaging factors' modeling, resistance to -38° C temperature and resistance to frost after thaw were confirmed in most VNIISPK breeding cultivars; winter-hardy cultivars with a resistance threshold -40°C: Vyatich, Orlovskiy partizan, Orlovskoye polesie, Zdorovye, Ministr Kiselev, Pamyat' Semakinu, Rozhdestvenskoye. Cultivars Idared, Golden Delicious, Granny Smith, Gala, Jonagold, Pink Lady, Fuji, Honeycrisp are recommended for use in breeding in combination with winter-resistant cultivars to create new high-quality apple tree cultivars with long keeping quality.

Canopy-pruning is of particular importance in modern fruit growing with high tree density as one of the main agro-technical factors that prevents the periodicity of fruiting and ensures efficient fruit production. Traditional pruning methods of the fruit orchard are associated with the significant cost of manual labor and do not ensure the annual high yields of quality fruits. In the situation when labor costs rise and there is a difficulty in providing skilled workers, mechanical (contour) pruning is introduced, which optimizes the size of crowns, light conditions and fruiting of the orchards. High stable productivity is achieved with the optimum term of mechanical (contour) pruning, so it is important to study this operation in intensive apple orchards. Since mechanical pruning has not been sufficiently studied in Ukraine, the aim of this reserach is to increase the efficiency of fruit growing by optimizing the method and timing of canopy pruning of winter apple-tree cultivars on dwarf rootstock. The article presents the research results of the effect of pruning practicess and terms on the productivity and cost-effectiveness of apple production of cvs. Gala (Mitchgla), Golden Delicious (clone B) and Jonagold (Wilmuta) in the irrigated orchard on dwarf rootstock M.9 T337. The experiments were conducted in the intensive apple full fruiting orchard. Non-virus young-trees of Dutch production were planted with drop irrigation according to the scheme 4x1 m and formed according to the type of slender spindle. Soil management system was: sod-humus – between the rows, herbicide fallow – in the around-trunk strips. The experiment with pruning terms and practices was laid out in triplicate replication with five accounting trees per plot. The trees were pruned in the rest phase (winter), a pink bud, during flowering, in the early summer period (10 leaves per shoot), as well as within two weeks after harvest. Pruning practices were traditional manual and contour (mechanical, modelling) with manual correction of the space between the trees in a row. To form a crown shape, the first mechanical pruning of all variants was done in winter with a fixed width of 80 cm in the lower part and 50 cm in the upper one of a tree, and further the shoots on the outside were annually shortened. The spaces between the trees were pruned manually, highlighting the thickened areas and removing drooping, old and excessively thick branches. It has been found out that mechanical pruning with manual correction of the space between the trees helps increase the productivity of orchard with a higher crop load by 20%, and under such pruning immediately after the harvest – by 17%. On the average during the experiment, the maximum value (23.1 kg / tree) was obtained for cv. Jonagold with mechanical pruning after harvest, whereas for Gala cultivar with manual winter pruning it was almost twice less. The crop of Golden Delicious trees with mechanical pruning after harvest (with manual correction) was by 38% higher than that of Gala cultivar, but by 5% lower than that of Jonagold variety. The yield capacity of the orchards depended significantly on the factors studied and was lower on the manual pruning areas. The areas with mechanical pruning and manual correction were by 19% more productive and the yield capacity was higher by 17% for post-harvest pruning. A maximum yield of 54.3 t / ha was obtained on mechanically pruned Golden Delicious trees in the pink bud phase and after harvest, as well as for Jonagold (57.6 t / ha) after mechanical post-harvest pruning. On the average, over the time of the experiment, the yield of more vigorous Jonagold trees was by 9% higher than that of cv. Golden Delicious and it was by 37% larger than the yield of cv. Gala (the last two with average growth). As compared with manual winter pruning, under mechanical pruning and manual correction, the fruit weight was by 8% larger, it was 10% higher after pruning in the pink bud phase and 12% higher on post-harvest pruning. The tendency to increase the fruit weight in the areas with mechanical pruning at a later time was revealed. Mechanical pruning (with manual correction) does not reduce the amount of quality fruits. As compared with traditional manual pruning in winter, after mechanical pruning, the yield of marketable fruit is higher by 20% and this indicator is 13% higher in the areas pruned after the harvest. The output of commercial apples of Gala cultivar is slightly smaller than that of cvs. Golden Delicious and Jonagold, and the performance of all cultivars is significantly lower after manual winter pruning. The marketable quality of Jonagold apples was 4% higher than that of Golden Delicious and 10% higher than the quality of Gala cultivar. Manual correction after mechanical pruning requires significantly lower labor costs in the plots of all the cultivars studied. However, due to higher crop and more manual labor to harvest additional crops, the total number of man-hours differed from traditional manual pruning slightly. In general, despite some increase in production costs, mechanical pruning immediately after harvest (with manual correction) provides a better price of fruit sale, higher profitability and high economic efficiency. Due to better marketability, the price of selling apples was higher in the areas with mechanical pruning after harvest (with manual correction of space between trees). Due to higher yields, the cost of production turned out to be lower in the plots with mechanical pruning. Mechanical pruning (with manual correction), carried out immediately after the harvest, provides a higher price of sales and a level of profitability, high economic efficiency of fruit production. As compared with manual winter pruning, mechanical pruning of the trees after harvest (with manual correction) requires 2.5 – 3 times less labor costs, it provides 2.0 – 8.5% lower production costs and 1.5 times higher profits annually. In this case, the profitability of the production of Gala apples is higher by 28% points, Jonagold – by 35% and Golden Delicious – by 27% points, as compared with manual winter pruning.

The article presents the findings of a study investigating the effects of storing Jonagold apples for six weeks in a condition in which the vertical component of the geomagnetic field has been eliminated (near null GMF) and in control conditions representing those applied in traditional storage (i.e., in the local geomagnetic field (local GMF)). Analyses of the fruit were performed before the start of and three times during the experiment (i.e., following four, five and six weeks in storage). The contents of simple sugars were measured using the HPLC (high performance liquid chromatography) method, refractometry was applied to identify total extract, thermogravimetry was used to measure the water content, volatile substances and total ash, calorific value and intensity of respiration were examined by measuring CO2 emissions. Significant differences were found between the apples stored in the experimental and under control conditions, showing an advantage of storage in a condition with the vertical component of the geomagnetic field removed. Statistically significant differences were mainly identified in the speed of starch conversion into simple sugars, as well as the intensity of respiration and the appearance of the two groups of apples. Storage of fruit in a compensated geomagnetic field proved to be an effective method permitting an extended duration of storage without significant deterioration of the physicochemical and organoleptic properties of apples.

The most destructive impacts on biological materials are impact loads, which cause tissue damage under surface peel. For apples, tissue damage increases due to the contact stresses resulting from the round shape of the fruit. Measurements of surface and volume of bruised apples expressed as a function of drop height have been measured, and a method has been developed to determine the resistance and the threshold to bruising for 'Idared', 'Golden Delicious' and 'Jonagold' apples. This method determines the resistance to bruises based on average surface pressures used as a load parameter in relation to the volume of damaged tissue. The relationship between the bruise surface and the volume was determined and confirmed as a power curve with a R2 determination factor of 0.97. A Bruise Resistance Index (BRI), defined as ratio of the average pressures to the bruised surface, was calculated as the ratio of surface pressure to measured bruise volume depending on the drop height. Comparison of both indicators showed that proposed BRIb power models precisely represent real BRI power curves. The bruise threshold as well as the bruise resistance for apples is an effective and rapid tool for assessment of damage degree.

Improved nitrogen (N) uptake efficiency (NUE) can lead to better economic and environmental outcomes. The physiological processes of N storage and remobilisation within deciduous fruit trees are relatively well understood. However, much can be gained through better understanding of management and environmental factors on these processes. This study aimed to determine the influence of pre- and post-harvest N application on NUE and the partitioning of N within the tree determined at winter dormancy. Fifteen-year-old potted ‘Jonagold’ trees, grafted on M26 rootstock were allocated to either pre- or post-harvest 5% 15N enriched calcium nitrate application. Fruit was harvested at commercial harvest. At winter dormancy, each tree was destructively harvested with plant material allocated to either roots, stem or branches. 15N recovery from dried plant samples was determined using Isotope Ratio Mass Spectroscopy. Nitrogen uptake efficiency was significantly greater with pre-harvest N application at 64.5% of applied N compared to post-harvest applied N at 50.5%. Timing of N application significantly influenced N distribution throughout the tree. Over 30% of pre-harvest N was recovered from fruit. The proportion of recovered N allocated to roots, stem and branches was significantly greater for post – harvest N application with leading to increased N storage reserves. This study shows that greater uptake efficiency can be achieved with pre-harvest N application, but that the majority of this was allocated to the fruit. This may present some risk to fruit quality outcomes as high fruit N has been shown to delay maturity, limit red colouration and lead to softer fruit that stores relatively poorly. Results from this study improve the current understanding of the influence of timing of N application on allocation and storage within deciduous fruit trees.

Variation with respect to both ploidy level and morphology was characterized for a set of 690 seedlings of the triploid apple variety Jonagold, of which 481 were obtained via in vitro culture of mature embryos, and 209 via conventional germination. Their ploidy level was determined by a combination of flow cytometry and root tip chromosome counting. The assessed morphological traits were leaf length, width and shape, stomatal density, guard cell length and chloroplast width and number. A total of 452 seedlings were aneuploid, 225 diploid, nine triploid and four tetraploid. All four tetraploid seedlings were derived by in vitro culture. When the triploid seedlings were genotyped at the S-locus and at selected microsatellite loci, we found that the Jonagold stigma was compatible with pollen which shared some of the maternal parent S-locus alleles.

To differentiate effects of netting and attribute them to crop, cultivar, planting density, climate, net type and colour, ca. 200 publications were scanned originally. Apple was chosen as a model crop due to the majority of reports, wide variation with many varieties and growing locations worldwide in the Northern and Southern hemisphere, but the results may be useful for other fruiting plants. After meeting strict selection criteria, a meta-analysis of 26 internationally published peer-reviewed articles was based on seven varieties and seventeen locations with a diverse range of climates. A novel Main Effects Meta Principal Components Analysis (ME Meta-PCA) was developed and provided unexpectedly uniform results: Location (climate), planting density and hail net (type and colour) had negligible impacts. Fruit (red) colour, most adversely affected by netting, correlated with TSS viz fruit sweetness, as often postulated in consumer studies, followed, to a smaller extent, by sugar/TSS, fruit firmness and acidity but small increase in fruit mass—i.e. maintenance of fruit quality under netting over all seven varieties (Braeburn, Gala, Elstar, Jonagold, Pinova and Fuji) examined and locations worldwide. While Jonagold and the early ripening Gala appeared suitable, unaffected and stable in the netting effects in the ME Meta-PCA, Pinova was the least suitable for cultivation under netting. Interestingly, late ripening cultivars (Braeburn and Cripps Pink) were both positively influenced by desired earlier ripening under netting. These effects on fruit quality are discussed with respect to shade adaptation under netting and countermeasures such as easy colouring mutants or reflective mulches.

Some apple (Malus × domestica) cultivars can become greasy during ripening due to changes in their surface wax composition. Epicuticular waxes are derived by the de novo synthesis of fatty acids, catalyzed by fatty acid synthase (FAS). Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) has previously been shown to be an inhibitor of FAS in both animals and bacteria. Therefore, we hypothesize it may also affect the development of postharvest skin greasiness in apples. In this study, ‘Jonagold’ apples were treated with EGCG and then stored at 20 °C. The composition of the surface waxes was analyzed and the expressions of genes related to wax synthesis were recorded. The results show that at these postharvest storage temperatures, the level of skin greasiness rises rapidly. This is consistent with measured increases in the content of the main fluid waxes - linoleate and oleate esters. Compared with the controls, the accumulation of fluid waxes was suppressed by EGCG at most stages during ambient storage. A number of genes related to fluid wax biosynthesis, including MdKASIII, MdKAR, MdFAD2 and MdWSD11, showed significant increases in expression during the development of skin greasiness. Meanwhile, the expressions of MdKASII and MdENR, the transport gene MdLTPG1 and the regulation gene MdSHN3 declined during storage. The expressions of all these genes were down-regulated by EGCG, while the fruit respiration and firmness were similar between the EGCG-treated and control fruit throughout the storage period. We suppose that the inhibitory effects of EGCG are to down-regulate expression levels of genes involved in wax biosynthesis. This results in reduced accumulation of the fluid wax components and delays and lowers the development of skin greasiness. Our results also indicate that MdFAD2 and MdWSD11 may be critical for formation of greasy esters in apple skins. This work is the first evaluation of the effects of EGCG on apple skin greasiness. The results supply useful information elucidating the mechanisms through which apple fruit skins can become greasy during postharvest storage.

The purpose. To determine extent of winter-hardiness and frost resistance of 20 clones of an apple of the grade Jonagold in conditions of Podillia. Methods. Field (determined extent of winter-hardiness of trees of clones), laboratory (test exposition of plant material to frost), comparative, generalizations. Statistical analysis of results of frost resistance was spent with application of the method of system of quotients. Results. In zone of Western Forest-steppe they selected clones with high level of winterhardiness and frost resistance. Conclusions. According to probes trees of clones DP-9, DP-11, DP-17, DP-18, DP-19, DP-20 had the higher extent of winter-hardiness (8,5 — 8,8 points). Plants of clones DP-2, DP-5, DP-9, DP-10 and DP-15 were characterized by high potential of frost resistance (2% of damage).

Different pathogenic fungi (e.g. Penicillium spp., Monilinia fructigena, Venturia inaequalis, Glomerella cingulata, Diaporthe eres etc.) can cause apple rot by producing pectic enzymes that break down apple pectin to expose the nutrients of the cells to the fungi. This study aimed to identify the pathogens that lead to the degradation of apples from five different varieties (‘Granny Smith’, ‘Topaz’, ‘Imperial Gala’, ‘Jonagold’ and ‘Golden Reinders’) and also the incidence of those pathogens under different treatment conditions. The results reveal different frequent attacks on distinct varieties ranging from 5 to over 50%. Of the pathogens that infect and occur in vegetation and deposit it can be seen that Venturia inaequalis has been identified in all varieties in most test variants. The highest frequency was recorded in the variant where during the vegetation period no treatments with fungicides against apple diseases were applied. Of the pathogens that infected and appeared during storage, isolated on the fruits, only Fusarium spp. and Penicillium spp. had a higher frequency. Applying treatments during the growing season reduced the rotting attack degree of apple fruits during storage. The best response to rot attack in the warehouse was ‘Topaz’ and ‘Jonagold’, the attack degree ranged between 0.3 and 10% on treated variants. By applying chemical treatments, the spectrum and the share of pathogens that lead to fruit degradation is different. This means that chemical treatments must be chosen depending on the nature of the pathogens and the apple variety.

This paper reports two strategies to mobilize phenolic antioxidants from lyophilized and oven-dried black grape (Vitis vinifera x (Vitis labrusca x Vitis riparia)) pomace, and apple (Malus domestica cv. Jonagold) and yellow pitahaya (Hylocereus megalanthus) peel, core, peduncle and seed mixtures: a solid-state Rhizomucor miehei NRRL 5282 fermentation-based process and a carbohydrate-cleaving enzyme treatment using R. miehei NRRL 5282 cellulase and Aspergillus niger pectinase cocktails. Both methods proved to be suitable to increase the extractable phenolic content and improve the antioxidant properties of the phenolics as determined by 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical inhibition or ferric reducing antioxidant power analyses. During solid-state fermentation, maximal phenolic yields obtained in lyophilized grape, apple and pitahaya residues were 1956 ± 31, 477 ± 37 and 495 ± 27 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/100 g dry matter (DM), respectively, while they were 1385 ± 71, 362 ± 27 and 615 ± 26 mg GAE/100 g DM in oven-dried samples, respectively. The major individual phenolics produced enzymatically from the substrates were identified by HPLC as gallic acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, vanillic acid, (+)-catechin and (−)-epicatechin, with yields ranging from 0.58 ± 0.06 to 215.81 ± 17.17 mg/100 g DM depending on the substrate and the pretreatment. The obtained phenolic-enriched extracts could potentially be applicable as sources of natural antioxidants.

The purpose of the survey was to determine oxidation area and skin color change at the damaged apples by using Arduino based Force Resistive Sensor (FRS) and image analysis techniques. Mondial Gala, Mitch Gala, Jonagold local apple varieties were tested with FRS supported harvest glove which was prepared for the impact measurement. FRS glove used for determination of impact force while harvesting of apples. After the impact test, oxidation areas of each sample was evaluated by using a webcam and Labview platform. The oxidation areas were precisely measured by using LabView software after all these procedures. The effects of the impact tests indicated that response to impact bruising is dependent on flesh firmness and the impact force as well as apple variety.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of the preharvest application of 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) on postharvest dissipation of stress watercore incidence and severity rating over 30 d at 20 °C. ‘Jonagold’ trees were untreated or sprayed with 1-MCP one week before harvest. Harvest indices and quality factors at 20 °C, were assessed on days 2, 5, 9,15, 20, and 30. Fruit treated with preharvest 1-MCP treatment had lower internal ethylene concentrations and lower starch pattern indices (higher starch concentration) at harvest compared with untreated fruit, but no effects on flesh firmness, soluble solids concentration, titratable acidity, watercore incidence and severity rating, and soluble sugars were detected. At 20 °C, however, preharvest 1-MCP treated fruit had a faster decrease of stress water core incidence and severity than untreated fruit, and delayed development of senescent breakdown and skin shriveling. Sorbitol concentrations were lower in preharvest 1-MCP treated fruit than untreated fruit, but effects on glucose, fructose, sucrose, and starch concentrations were not consistent. More rapid loss of stress-associated water core in preharvest 1-MCP treated fruit was consistent with lower sorbitol concentrations in the cortical tissues.

The surface waxes of some apple (Malus × domestica) cultivars can become greasy during storage. Our previous work suggests the accumulation of fluid esters cause the increasing wax fluidity. To provide evidence for the inference, we revealed the effects of chemical changes in the apple epicuticular waxes on their thermodynamic properties. First, the chemical compositions and thermodynamic properties of the epicuticular waxes on ‘Jonagold’ apples were measured using GC-MS and differential scanning calorimetry, respectively. Then, a simulation experiment was performed in which alkanes (representing the epicuticular waxes) were mixed with different proportions of farnesyl linoleate. As skin greasiness in ‘Joangold’ develops, the linoleate and oleate esters (mainly the farnesyl linoleate) increase significantly, which is the most obvious chemical change in the epicuticular waxes. Meanwhile, the thermodynamic properties including the melt temperatures and the enthalpy decrease. In the simulation, the melt temperatures and the enthalpy of alkanes decreased with the increasing farnesyl linoleate. This confirms that the accumulation of farnesyl linoleate in ‘Jonagold’ can cause the decrease in thermodynamic properties of the epicuticular waxes. The results also suggest the esters may raise the wax fluidity of apples, in a manner similar to that of the plasticizer in the polymers.

A field planting of 'Daybreak Fuji'/M.9 NAKB T337 and 'Rubinstar Jonagold'/B.9 was established in 2008 to evaluate 4 training systems: tall spindle (TS), vertical axis (A), tall trellis (TT) and minimally pruned (MP). Training system influenced the number of flowers and flowering density in the second and third growing seasons. At the end of the 6th growing season there was no influence of training system on tree size for 'Jonagold' (JG), while 'Fuji' (DF) TT trees were the smallest of the 4 systems. Total cumulative yield for both cultivars was greatest for trees trained to the MP system. Total cumulative yield for 'Fuji' was lowest for trees trained to the TT system. Cumulative efficiency for 'Jonagold' was significantly better for the trees in the TT and MP than trees in the TS system. There was no significant difference in cumulative efficiency for 'Fuji' trees in any system. Total number of fruit tree-1 was higher for MP trees resulting in lower fruit weight. Labor requirements, man h ha-1, were consistently higher for the TT system largely due to summer pruning; while it was consistently lower for the MP system. Light intensity in the lower canopy in 2012 was not influenced by training system for JG but was for DF.

Certain apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) cultivars develop a greasy surface when overripe and the wax changes are considered to be responsible for this disorder, but the contributing wax composition for skin greasiness remains unclear. Cuticular wax composition and wax morphologies of three cultivars were analyzed during storage at 20 °C. ‘Jonagold’ rapidly became greasy over a 20 d storage period but ‘Red Delicious’ did not. ‘Cripps Pink’ showed a slower greasiness development than ‘Jonagold’ over 70 d of storage. Alkanes, principally nonacosane, and fatty alcohols, principally nonacosan-10-ol contributed to the formation of the three-dimensional structure of waxes. Accumulation of more fluid wax constituents, which consist mainly of linoleate and oleate esters of (E,E)-farnesol and short-chain alcohols (C3-C5), led to the solid-liquid phase change of waxes, ultimately causing the greasy feeling on ‘Jonagold’ and ‘Cripps Pink’ apples. Compared with ‘Jonagold’, the increase of liquid fractions in ‘Red Delicious’ was much smaller and the wax crystals remained intact after the same storage period. The intact farnesyl esters were profiled for the first time using GC–MS. The results for ‘Cripps Pink’ suggest that the increase in solid fractions (alkanes and fatty alcohols) may lessen the effects of the fluid fractions on greasiness by maintaining wax structure. Finally, a hypothesis is proposed for ester production associated with greasiness development.

© 2017, Springer Science+Business Media, LLC. A method to build a 3D statistical shape model of horticultural products is described. The framework consists of two parts. First, the surfaces of the horticultural products, which are extracted from X-ray CT scans, are registered to obtain meaningful correspondences between the surfaces. In the second part, a statistical shape model is built from these corresponded surfaces, which maps out the variability of the surfaces and allows to generate new, realistic surfaces. The proposed shape modelling method is applied to 30 Jonagold apples, 30 bell peppers, and 52 zucchini. The average geometric registration error between the original instance and the deformed reference instance is 0.015 ± 0.011 mm for the apple dataset, 0.106 ± 0.026 mm for the bell pepper dataset, and 0.027 ± 0.007 mm for the Zucchini dataset. All shape models are shown to be an excellent representation of their specific population, as they are compact and able to generalize to an unseen sample of the population. ispartof: Food and Bioprocess Technology vol:10 issue:11 pages:2100-2112 status: published

Bruises in apples is one of the most important quality factors during postharvest, which needs to be detected early and efficiently during sorting processes. In this study, a step-wise pixel based apple bruise detection system based on line scan hyperspectral imaging (HSI) in the shortwave infrared (SWIR) is demonstrated for three apple cultivars: ‘Jonagold’, ‘Kanzi’ and ‘Joly Red’. The SWIR HSI system performance was tested on apples from the different cultivars bruised at five different impact levels, and monitored from 1 to 36 h after bruising. While glare regions are commonly considered as anomalies and discarded from further analysis, their spectral signatures enabled in this work to distinguish between cultivars with a prediction accuracy up to 96%. Different partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) models were trained to discriminate cultivars and then to discriminate between sound, bruised, glossy and stem regions. Spectral area normalization pre-processing was found to be the most effective for pixel based bruise prediction, resulting in a prediction accuracy up to 90.1%. Post-processing of the binary images by exploiting spatial information further improved the bruise detection accuracy to 94.4%.

© 2017 Elsevier B.V. Modifications of cell wall pectin during apple softening involve the concerted action of several enzymes. A mathematical model was developed to describe the action of cell wall hydrolases resulting in specific modifications in cell wall pectin polysaccharides during softening of ‘Jonagold’ apple. A conceptual model of enzyme-induced pectin breakdown was formulated based on current knowledge. Activities of different cell wall enzymes were considered to be directly correlated to the expression levels of the respective genes. The first pectin modification to occur was assumed to be cleavage of side chain neutral sugars from the polymer backbone, by the action of side chain debranching enzymes, beta-galactosidase and alpha-L-arabinofuranosidase. It was considered that this increases cell wall porosity, facilitating the action of pectin methyl esterase, which de-methylates pectin polysaccharides, providing a substrate for polygalacturonase. Polygalacturonase degrades the de-methylated pectin chain, producing smaller pectin fragments which are easily solubilised in water. Coupled differential equations were written based on these reactions. The model was calibrated using data on expression of cell wall-related genes, activities of enzymes encoded by these genes, and the associated modifications in pectin polysaccharides during softening in ‘Jonagold’ apples stored at 1 °C under regular atmosphere or controlled atmosphere. The model could explain 79% of the variation in the data. Using the model, in silico investigations on the impact of downregulation of different key cell wall-related genes on softening were carried out, and the results were compared successfully with currently available literature data. ispartof: Postharvest Biology and Technology vol:130 pages:64-74 status: published

© 2017 Elsevier B.V. A non-destructive methodology was developed to automatically detect and quantify bruise volumes in the equatorial region of apples, using X-ray CT images. Grey level threshold values were calculated to segment bruises in ‘Jonagold’, ‘Joly Red’ and ‘Kanzi’ apple fruit using the multi-level Otsu's threshold method. Comparisons were made between the CT-based bruise volume estimates and bruise volume estimates that were based on destructive measurements in combination with simple geometric assumptions. Visualisation of the bruises in both 2 and 3D showed that bruises, resulting from a pendulum impact with a spherical impactor, can be highly irregularly shaped which implies that the bruise volume estimations based on simple geometric assumptions cannot deliver accurate results. publisher: Elsevier articletitle: Assessment of bruise volumes in apples using X-ray computed tomography journaltitle: Postharvest Biology and Technology articlelink: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2017.01.013 content_type: article copyright: © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. ispartof: Postharvest Biology and Technology vol:128 pages:24-32 status: published