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Abstract Sub‐Saharan Africa's adoption of inorganic fertilizer lags behind other developing nations, creating limitations for small‐holder cocoa producers. Using the Diffusion of Innovations (DOI) Theory, articles assessing inorganic fertilizer (non)adoption by cocoa producers in Sub‐Saharan Africa are reviewed. Factors influencing adoption fell into two major categories: socioeconomic characteristics of the potential adopter and characteristics of the innovation itself. Farm income, access to credit, labor requirements, and fertilizer price/availability are especially influential. Future studies and outreach efforts to consider the interplay of many personal, agronomic, and technological factors when promoting fertilizer adoption in cocoa farming are encouraged.

The purpose of the present study was to examine the oxygen uptake (Vo2), heart rate (HR), and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE [OMNI-Leg 0-10]) responses during continuous 1-hour cycle ergometer rides at the PWCVo2 (physical working capacity at the oxygen consumption threshold). Eight subjects (mean age +/- SD = 23 +/- 3.2 years) performed a maximal test to exhaustion for the determination of Vo2peak and ventilatory threshold (VT). The subjects also performed 4 randomly ordered 8-minute workbouts at different power outputs (ranging from 84 to 245 W) to determine the PWCVo2 and a continuous 1-hour cycle ergometer ride at the PWCVo2 during which Vo2, HR, and RPE data were collected every 2 minutes. The PWCVo2 (114 +/- 39 W) and VT (133 +/- 44 W) were not significantly different and occurred at 56 and 63% Vo2peak, respectively. Linear regression showed that the slope coefficients for the Vo2, HR, and RPE vs. time relationships for the continuous 1-hour workbouts were significantly greater than zero. Furthermore, a t-test about a single mean indicated that the mean slope coefficient for the HR vs. time relationship was significantly greater than 0.1 bpm x min(-1) (the rate of increase in HR that can be maintained for an 8-hour day). The results of this study indicated that PWCVo2 could be maintained for an extended period. However, the maximal power output associated with steady state Vo2, HR, and RPE responses was overestimated. The mean increase in Vo2 during the continuous 1-hour ride was 270 mL, which suggested that the PWCVo2 may demarcate the moderate from heavy exercise domains. The mean HR slope coefficient of 0.3 bpm x min(-1) indicated that the power output at the PWCVo2 could likely be maintained for greater than 2 hours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purposes of this study were to 1) compare the patterns of responses for plasma ammonia concentration ([NH3]) during moderate- vs. heavy-intensity cycle ergometry, and 2) examine the relationship between the V O2 slow component (V O 2SC) and plasma [NH3]. Thirteen healthy, untrained men (mean +/- SEM age = 24.8 +/- 0.6 years) performed a total of eight constant power output exercises (7 minutes in duration) at two different intensities (moderate, 60% gas exchange threshold [GET] = 60% of the gas exchange threshold; and heavy, Delta 50% = 50% of the difference between GET and V O2 max). Blood was collected from an antecubital vein before the exercise, during the last 3 minutes of the 6-minute warm-up, and during each minute of the 7-minute constant power output workbout. The time course of changes in plasma [NH3] and V O2 during the two constant power output exercise intensities were assessed separately using 2 (intensity) x 7 (time) repeated-measures analyses of variance. For 60% GET, there were no significant differences in the mean normalized plasma [NH3] during the 7-minute workbout. For Delta 50%, there was a significant increase in the mean normalized plasma [NH3] during the 7-minute workbout. These findings suggest a potential relationship between exercise-induced hyperammonemia and the V O 2SC during heavy-intensity exercise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to validate the Physical Working Capacity at the Heart Rate Threshold (PWC HRT) and Physical Working Capacity at the Oxygen Consumption Threshold (PWC V O2) tests by 1) using individual power vs. duration relationships to estimate the times to exhaustion (ETTE) at the PWC HRT and PWC V O2, and 2) comparing the power outputs and ETTE values of the PWC HRT and PWC V O2 with those of the ventilatory threshold (VT). Ten adults (mean age +/- SD = 23 +/- 1 years) performed an incremental test to exhaustion on a cycle ergometer for the determination of V O2 peak and VT. The subjects also performed four randomly ordered workbouts to exhaustion at different power outputs (ranging from 98 to 246 W) to determine the PWC V O2, PWC HRT, and power vs. duration relationship. Power curve analyses (y = ax b) were used to define the hyperbolic power vs. duration relationship for each subject and to determine the ETTE at the PWC V O2, PWC HRT, and VT. Two separate one-way repeated-measures analyses of variance indicated that there were significant differences among the fatigue thresholds (PWC V O2 > PWC HRT) and ETTE values (PWC HRT > PWC V O2): PWC V O2 (mean +/- SD = 147 +/- 43 W; ETTE = 21 +/- 3 minutes), PWCHRT (136 +/- 37 W; ETTE = 29 +/- 6 minutes), and VT (143 +/- 44 W; ETTE = 27 +/- 11 minutes). These findings were consistent with previous studies that indicated that the PWC HRT occurred at a lower power output than the PWC V O2. Furthermore, the PWC HRT was maintained for a mean of 29 minutes, whereas the PWC V O2 and VT were maintained for 21 and 27 minutes, respectively. These findings indicate that the ETTE values for the PWC V O2 and PWC HRT were substantially less than those suggested in previous studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the present study was to use ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) from the Borg (6-20) and OMNI-Leg (0-10) scales to determine the Physical Working Capacity at the Borg and OMNI thresholds (PWC(BORG) and PWC(OMNI)). PWC(BORG) and PWC(OMNI) were compared with other fatigue thresholds determined from the measurement of heart rate (the Physical Working Capacity at the Heart Rate Threshold: PWC(HRT)), and oxygen consumption (the Physical Working Capacity at the Oxygen Consumption Threshold, PWC(VO2)), as well as the ventilatory threshold (VT). Fifteen men and women volunteers (mean age +/- SD = 22 +/- 1 years) performed an incremental test to exhaustion on an electronically braked ergometer for the determination of VO2 peak and VT. The subjects also performed 4 randomly ordered workbouts to exhaustion at different power outputs (ranging from 60 to 206W) for the determination of PWC(BORG), PWC(OMNI), PWC(HRT), and PWC(VO2). The results indicated that there were no significant mean differences among the fatigue thresholds: PWC(BORG) (mean +/- SD = 133 +/- 37W; 67 +/- 8% of VO2 peak), PWC(OMNI) (137 +/- 44W; 68 +/- 9% of VO2 peak), PWC(HRT) (135 +/- 36W; 68 +/- 8% of VO2 peak), PWC(VO2) (145 +/- 41W; 72 +/- 7% of VO2 peak) and VT (131 +/- 45W; 66 +/- 8% of VO2 peak). The results of this study indicated that the mathematical model used to estimate PWC(HRT) and PWC(VO2) can be applied to ratings of perceived exertion to determine PWC(BORG) and PWC(OMNI) during cycle ergometry. Salient features of the PWC(BORG) and PWC(OMNI) tests are that they are simple to administer and require the use of only an RPE scale, a stopwatch, and a cycle ergometer. Furthermore, the power outputs at the PWC(BORG) and PWC(OMNI) may be useful to estimate the VT noninvasively and without the need for expired gas analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

STUDY DESIGN: Repeated-measures experimental design. OBJECTIVE: To examine the acute effects of static stretching on peak torque, the joint angle at peak torque, mean power output, and electromyographic and mechanomyographic amplitudes and mean power frequency of the vastus lateralis and rectus femoris muscles during maximal eccentric isokinetic muscle actions. BACKGROUND: A bout of static stretching may impair muscle strength during isometric and concentric muscle actions, but it is unclear how static stretching may affect eccentric force production. METHODS AND MEASURES: Fifteen men (mean 6 SD age, 23.4 6 2.4 years) performed maximal eccentric isokinetic muscle actions of the dominant and nondominant knee extensor muscles at 60 degrees·s-1 and 180 degrees·s-1 on an isokinetic dynamometer, while electromyographic and mechanomyographic amplitudes (root-mean-square) and mean power frequency were calculated for the vastus lateralis and rectus femoris muscles. Peak torque (Nm), the joint angle at peak torque ( degrees), and mean power output (W) values were recorded by the dynamometer. Subsequently, the dominant lower extremity knee extensors underwent static stretching exercises, then the assessments were repeated. RESULTS: There were no stretching-related changes in peak torque, the joint angle at peak torque, mean power output, electromyographic or mechanomyographic amplitude, or mean power frequency (P>.05). However, there were expected velocity-related, limb-related, and muscle-related differences (P

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the mechanomyographic (MMG) responses to maximal concentric (CON) and passive leg extension movements. Eight adult females performed maximal CON muscle actions and passive leg extension movements of the dominant leg on a calibrated CYBEX 6000 dynamometer at velocities of 30, 90, and 150 degrees x s-1. MMG and electromyographic (EMG) signals were simultaneously recorded from the vastus lateralis (VL). The results indicated velocity-related dissociations among MMG amplitude, EMG amplitude, and peak torque during the maximal CON muscle actions. For the passive leg extension movements, however, the EMG amplitude values at each velocity were not significantly (p > 0.05) different from the values at rest, but the MMG amplitude increased significantly (p < 0.05) with velocity. It was hypothesized that the velocity-related increase in MMG amplitude for the passive leg extension movements was independent of VL activation and may have been associated with turbulences of the intracellular and extracellular fluid mediums and/or cross-talk from the hamstring muscles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Eleven adult males (mean +/- SD age = 22 +/- 3 years) performed maximal, concentric isokinetic leg extension muscle actions at velocities of 60, 120, 180, 240, and 300degrees xs[1] on a Cybex 6000 dynamometer. The results indicated that peak torque (PT) decreased (p<0.05) as muscle action velocity increased. Mechanomyographic (MMG) amplitude increased with velocity to 180degrees xs[1] for each muscle tested (vastus lateralis = VL, rectus femoris = RF, and vastus medialis = VM). For the VL, MMG amplitude continued to increase to 240degrees xs[1] and then plateaued, while the RF plateaued from 180 to 300degrees xs[1]. The VM showed a constant increase in MMG amplitude to 300degrees xs[1]. Electromyographic (EMG) amplitude increased to 180degrees xs[1] and then plateaued for each muscle. These findings indicated muscle-specific differences in MMG amplitude patterns across velocity that may be attributable to differences in fiber type composition, muscle architecture, and/or tissue layer composition. Furthermore, these results suggested that there were muscle-specific, velocity-related differences in the association between motor unit activation (EMG) and the mechanical aspects of muscular activity (MMG). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]