Search

The field of special education has become increasingly interested in and concerned about the costs associated with delivering programs and services to students. Yet, to date, there has been relatively limited data on the costs or return on investment of special education services and preventive interventions. There is an opportunity to learn from other areas of education about the costs and benefits of programming related to students with disabilities. One such line of cost-related work that has emerged over the past few years has focused on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS). This paper reviews the process of conducting a cost analysis alongside findings from a series of recent PBIS-related research on costs and benefits, including the return on investment associated with PBIS. Research suggests that the benefits of PBIS outweigh the costs, signaling a positive return on investment. Current research evidence shows that the largest benefits of PBIS come from improvements in academics, suggesting the value of interventions that support student behavior, which may be maximized for students with special educational needs.

This study presents findings from a 58 high-school group-randomized controlled trial testing the effectiveness of training in a multitiered system of supports for behavior (MTSS-B) framework, which was leveraged to reduce students' risk for emotional and behavior disorders. The trial tested the impact of MTSS-B, which included (a) training in the broader MTSS-B framework that went beyond the existing Tier 1 (school-wide PBIS) training offered by the state; (b) project-provided coaching and technical assistance supports; and (c) integration and training in evidence-based behavioral or social-emotional programs at Tiers 2 and/or 3. We reported effects of MTSS-B on implementation of positive behavior supports across all three tiers using the Schoolwide Evaluation Tool (SET) and Individual Student Systems Evaluation Tool (ISSET), as well as on external observations of teachers' use of classroom management strategies. Results indicated significant effects on multiple SET subscales and significant reductions in teachers' use of reactive behavior management.

There is growing interest in the use of a multi-tiered system of supports framework to address issues related to school climate and bullying. Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) is one such model that has received considerable attention; however, nearly all of the extant literature has focused on elementary and middle schools, with limited research on high schools. Furthermore, research on PBIS implementation in high schools, particularly in relation to school context, is scant. The current article examined the adoption and implementation of PBIS in 31 high schools randomly assigned to implement PBIS, within the context of a larger 58 high school randomized trial. We first present descriptive data on the rollout of the core features of PBIS, as measured by a set of research-based implementation tools administered by outside observers. We then explore the extent to which baseline rates of bullying and other school-level indicators of disorder were associated with the adoption of the multi-tiered PBIS framework over the course of 2 years. Multilevel analyses on the longitudinal implementation data indicated that schools with higher baseline rates of bullying generally implemented PBIS with greater fidelity over time. This suggests that schools with increased bullying may be particularly motivated to adopt PBIS. However, other baseline indicators of disorder were generally not associated with PBIS implementation and thus do not appear to be barriers to adoption. Implications for implementation research and practice in high schools are discussed.

Few studies empirically compare the approaches law enforcement officers (LEOs) and school mental health professionals (SMHPs) use to keep schools safe. Such comparisons are important for improving safety and student wellbeing. A focus on the experiences of racial/ethnic minority students is especially important given evidence that school safety approaches have harmed this group. In this study, we compare how LEOs and SMHPs report prioritizing their duties and how this prioritization varies in schools with a predominantly Latino/a/x or Native American population or diverse population versus a predominantly White population. To these ends, we pair school-level data with survey data from LEOs and SMHPs. Both LEOs and SMHPs prioritize and focus on reducing the risk of violence and building strong relationships. We also find that school demographic context plays a role in how some, but not all, school safety activities are prioritized. Implications for scholarship and policy are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Much etiologic research has focused on individual-level risk factors for teen dating violence (TDV); therefore, less is known about school-level and neighborhood-level risk factors. We examined the association between alcohol outlet density around high schools and TDV victimization and the association between markers of physical disorder around schools and TDV victimization among adolescents. Methods: Data come from high school students participating in the Maryland Safe and Supportive Schools Initiative. Alcohol outlet density was calculated using walking distance buffers around schools. An observational tool was used to assess indicators of physical disorder on school property (e.g., alcohol and drug paraphernalia). Hierarchical linear modeling was used to identify student- and school-level predictors associated with TDV victimization. Results: Overall, 11% of students reported experiencing physical TDV and 11% reported experiencing psychological TDV over the past year. Recent alcohol use was a risk factor for TDV victimization for both sexes, whereas feeling safe at school was protective against TDV victimization for both sexes. Greater alcohol outlet density was associated with decreased TDV victimization for males, however, it was nonsignificant for females. Physical disorder around schools was not associated with TDV victimization for either sex. Conclusion: Although the school-level predictors were not associated with TDV victimization, alcohol use and perceptions of safety at school were significantly associated with TDV victimization. Prevention efforts to address alcohol use may affect TDV victimization.

Background: School climate has been linked to multiple student behavioral, academic, health, and social-emotional outcomes. The US Department of Education (USDOE) developed a 3-factor model of school climate comprised of safety, engagement, and environment. This article examines the factor structure and measurement invariance of the USDOE model. Methods: Drawing upon 2 consecutive waves of data from over 25,000 high school students (46% minority), a series of exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses examined the fit of the Maryland Safe and Supportive Schools Climate Survey with the USDOE model. Results: The results indicated adequate model fit with the theorized 3-factor model of school climate, which included 13 subdomains: safety (perceived safety, bullying and aggression, and drug use); engagement (connection to teachers, student connectedness, academic engagement, school connectedness, equity, and parent engagement); environment (rules and consequences, physical comfort, and support, disorder). We also found consistent measurement invariance with regard to student sex, grade level, and ethnicity. School-level interclass correlation coefficients ranged from 0.04 to 0.10 for the scales. Conclusions: Findings supported the USDOE 3-factor model of school climate and suggest measurement invariance and high internal consistency of the 3 scales and 13 subdomains. These results suggest the 56-item measure may be a potentially efficient, yet comprehensive measure of school climate.

This article provides information about aspects of the school environment students perceive to influence the occurrence of school violence. Concept mapping, a mixed-methods methodology, was used with two groups of urban, primarily African American high school students (N = 27) to create conceptual frameworks of their understanding of the school social and physical environment's influence on school violence. Each group of students identified over 50 different ways they perceived that their school environment contributed to school violence. These ideas were categorized into six main topics: student behaviors, norms of behavior, relationships with school staff, learning environment, school safety, and neighborhood environment. Students' perceptions supported the current conceptualization of the role of the school environment in school violence. However, this study supplements the current literature by identifying school-level aspects of the social and physical environment that contribute to students perceptions of the safety of their school. At this level, differences were seen between the two school environments, indicating a need for intervention tailoring.

Background: Numerous studies have demonstrated an association between characteristics of the school environment and the likelihood of school violence. However, little is known about the relative importance of various characteristics of the school environment or their differential impact on multiple violence outcomes. Methods: Primarily African-American students (n = 27) from Baltimore City high schools participated in concept mapping sessions, which produced interpretable maps of the school environment's contribution to school violence. Participants generated statements about their school environment's influence on school violence and, with the assistance of quantitative methods, grouped these statements according to their similarity. Participants provided information about the importance of each of these statements for the initiation, cessation, and severity of the violence that occurs at school. Results: More than half of the 132 statements generated by students were rated as school environment characteristics highly important for the initiation, cessation, and/or severity of school violence. Participants identified students' own actions, expectations for disruptive behavior, and the environment outside the school as the characteristics most important for the initiation and increased severity of violence that occurs in school. Participants had a more difficult time identifying school environment characteristics important for the cessation of school violence. Conclusion: This study provides support from students for the role of the school environment in school violence prevention, particularly in preventing the initiation and reducing the severity of school violence. Schools can utilize the information presented in this article to begin discussions with students and staff about prioritizing school environment changes to reduce school violence. (Contains 2 figures and 3 tables.)

While the negative impact of extensive exposure to community violence and armed conflict is known, less emphasis has been focused on outcomes supportive of resilience. It is critical to begin exploring these constructs to both promote healing from decades-long conflict and to inform targeted interventions that focus on positive youth development in contexts of adversity. This study thus utilized a person-centered approach to estimate violence exposure profiles among 3,443 Colombian youth to explore what demographic covariates and positive youth development outcomes, such as school engagement, hope, goals, social competence, future expectations, and barriers to education were associated with each violence exposure profile. Four profiles emerged: a low exposure profile, a high community violence profile, a some combined exposure profile, and a high combined exposure profile, each with various levels of community violence witnessing and victimization as well as armed conflict exposure. Demographic covariance results showed older, urban, male youth were more likely to be in the high violence exposure profiles compared to the low exposure group. Youth in the high combined exposure profile were more likely to have lower hope, educational expectations, and social competence compared to the low exposure group. Findings highlight that a person-centered approach provides a more multidimensional view of adolescent violence exposure. Demographic differences suggested the importance of tailoring violence prevention initiatives to the local context. Finally, results concerning positive youth development outcomes suggest that resiliency-oriented constructs, which can be instrumental toward youth's postwar healing and growth, should be emphasized among populations who experience high levels of co-occurring exposure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: Observed classroom and school environmental factors relate to how students perceive school climate.Observations account for large proportions of the shared variation in school climate perceptions.Findings suggest the utility of outside observations to explain variation in school climate. Students often have differing perceptions of their school's climate. Although these subjective perceptions can be meaningful outcome predictors, discrepancies create challenges for those seeking to globally characterize or intervene to improve the climate of a school. Trained, independent observers can provide insights on perceptible and ostensibly malleable aspects of the school; however, the extent to which these observations help us to understand differences in students' report of school climate has not been examined. To study this, we assessed convergence and divergence between independent observers' assessments and students' perceptions of school climate at the classroom and school levels. Data come from the Maryland Safe and Supportive Schools Initiative (MDS3), which included 20,647 students and observations of 303 teachers in 50 high schools. Students responded to survey items regarding safety, engagement, and environment; independent observers assessed teachers' classroom practices and the school physical environment. A three‐level model partitioned variance to the individual, classroom, and school levels. The variance in students' climate perceptions was primarily between students, with most classroom and school intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) ranging from 0.01 to 0.08, though one was as high as 0.20; however, observations explained large percentages of between‐school variation in climate (58%–91%). Findings suggest the potential utility of outside observations for explaining school‐level variation in school climate to inform decision‐making and future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Positive school climate has been consistently associated with many desirable student outcomes in both middle and high schools. However, there has been little work comparing the perceptions across these two school settings. The U.S. Department of Education conceptualized a three-factor model for school climate consisting of safety, engagement, and environment. Drawing on data from 29,720 middle and 34,950 high school students, the fit of the three-factor model was examined for measurement invariance, to explore whether the measure functioned similarly across both middle and high schools. The results indicated measurement invariance, which suggests that practitioners and researchers can confidently compare findings across middle and high schools to inform local decision making related to school-based programming. A series of multilevel analyses also explored the extent to which perceptions of school climate differed for middle and high school students; these results generally indicated that middle school students perceived the school more favorably than high school students. Implications of these findings for social workers are considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research, theory, and practice suggest an important role for parents in supporting their children when exposed to violence and helping them cope with victimization experiences. Despite this little is known about how parents respond to bullying and the factors that influence their response. Using data from 1,117 parents who reported that their middle or high schooler had been bullied in the past 30 days, this article identified different patterns of responses as well as examined the influence of perceptions of school climate, school policies and training, and school structural characteristics on their responses. A latent class analysis identified 3 different patterns of parental responses including Only Talk (72%), Contact School (23%), and Handle Themselves (5%). Parents who perceived the school to have more effective school rules were less likely to be in the class of parents who contacted the school versus the only talking class; however, school staff training was associated with a greater likelihood of parents being in the contact the school class versus the only talking class. Perceptions of equity were also related to an increased likelihood of being in the contact the school class versus the handle themselves class. These findings suggest that parents' behaviors in response to bullying may be related to their perceptions of the school and school actions around bullying. Efforts to promote a collaborative approach to bullying between school and home should focus on communicating this expectation, potentially addressing parents' perceptions of equitable treatment for all students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the high rates of cell phone and Internet usage among youth, technology is a promising method for improved parent-youth communication. However, little is known about how parents can effectively engage in technology-based communication with youth, particularly low-income urban minority youth. Eight focus groups with 82 low-income urban black youth (aged 14 to 22 years) provided information about perceptions of technology-based communication with parents. Youth in the focus groups reported that they preferred to use text messaging with their parents, as it afforded them control over the frequency and type of communication. Youth shared concerns about excessive/intrusive parental use of technology and invasions of privacy, suggesting potential barriers to effective technology-based parent-youth communication. The findings from this qualitative study indicate that using text messages with youth and setting guidelines for technology-based communication may enhance parent-youth communication while also respecting youth's increasing autonomy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interest in youths' experience of the various forms of bullying has grown due to the numerous social-emotional correlates associated with bullying. Only recently has there been consideration of the school context in light of these associations. The current study examined the overlap in four different forms of bullying that youth commonly experience (i.e., verbal, relational, physical, electronic), with the aim of understanding their association with social-emotional correlates (i.e., internalizing symptoms, externalizing symptoms, retaliatory attitudes) and exploring associations with school contextual factors such as supervision, school physical disorder, and behavioral expectations. Self-report data on the forms of peer bullying were collected from 24,620 adolescents (Grades 9–12;Mage = 15.98,SDage = 1.32) enrolled in 52 high schools. Latent class analyses indicated significant overlap in the different forms of bullying victimization, with youth experiencing multiple forms of bullying reporting the greatest risk for social-emotional problems. A series of two-level hierarchical linear models revealed that indicators of school physical disorder and a lack of positive behavioral expectations were associated with increased risk for multiple forms of bullying. Several gender and age differences were also observed in relation to the patterns of bullying experienced. These findings extend prior research by emphasizing a potential link between the overlap in different forms of bullying and school contextual factors, even after controlling for individual-level risk factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Family socialization, which includes parental control and support, plays an important role in reducing the likelihood of adolescent involvement in conflict. This study examined the strategies that urban parents living in neighborhoods with high crime rates suggest to help their adolescent children avoid or deescalate conflict. Data came from 48 African American parent/adolescent dyads recruited through the youths’ middle school. Dyads responded to three video-taped scenarios depicting youth in potential conflict situations. Qualitative methods were used to identify 11 strategies parents suggested to help youth avoid or deescalate conflict. Although the majority of parents advocated for nonviolent solutions, these same parents described situations in which their child may need to use violence. These findings have important implications for family-focused violence prevention programs. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Much of the literature linking adversity to trauma fails to account for racialized experiences, including racial-ethnic discrimination, which is a highly prevalent form of adversity for youth of color in the U.S. Adversity and trauma often result in students experiencing elevated rule-breaking behaviors, exacerbating existing racial-ethnic disparities in disproportionate school discipline. Drawing from race-based trauma theory, the present study explored trauma as a mediator of the longitudinal association between racial-ethnic discrimination from teachers, other adults, and students in schools and rule-breaking behaviors among Latinx youth. Data were from a longitudinal study of 547 Latinx students in a southeastern U.S. state. Across gender and nativity groups, school racial-ethnic discrimination and trauma positively predicted later rule-breaking behaviors. Additionally, for girls only, increased levels of trauma partially explained the association between school racial-ethnic discrimination and rule-breaking behaviors. The study highlights the importance of addressing school racial-ethnic discrimination and trauma in equitable school metal health systems. Indeed, efforts aimed at reducing disproportionate school discipline among Latinx students should focus on reducing their exposure to school racial-ethnic discrimination and increasing access to trauma-informed and restorative justice approaches.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the cost of serving one additional youth in the Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (BBBS) program. We used a marginal cost approach which offers a significant improvement over previous methods based on average total cost estimates. The data consisted of eight years of monthly records from January 2008 to August 2015 obtained from program administrators at one BBBS site in the Mid-Atlantic. Results show that the BBBS marginal cost to serve one additional youth was $80 per mentor-month of BBBS mentoring (irrespective of program type). The cost to offer services for the average match duration of 19 months per marginal added youth was $1,503. The marginal costs per treated program participant in school-based versus community-based programs were $1,199 and $3,301, respectively. Marginal cost estimates are in the range of youth mentoring programs with significant returns on investment but are substantially higher than prior BBBS unit cost estimates reported using less robust estimation methods. This cost analysis can better inform policy makers and donors on the cost of expanding the scale of local BBBS programs as well as suggest opportunities for cost savings., Competing Interests: Declarations of interest: none

Background: African American young adults are at high risk for dual use of cigarettes and cigars. Limited work has explored and characterized the reasons for use in this population and their relative importance for initiation and current smoking of these products., Method: Reasons for cigarette and cigar use were systematically explored and categorized using a mixed methods participatory approach called concept mapping. A series of in-person group sessions were held with 30 African American young adult (ages 18-29) current smokers of both cigarettes and cigars in Prince George's County, MD and Washington, DC. Participants brainstormed, sorted, rated, and interpreted their reasons for initiation and past 30-day use of cigarettes and cigars. A cluster map was generated using multi-dimensional scaling, and t-tests were used to explore differences in ratings by background characteristics., Results: Participants generated 64 reasons for smoking cigarettes and cigars, and categorized these reasons into six groups: emotions, urges, access, product characteristics, lifestyle, and outside pressure. Emotions and urges were the most important motivations for initiation and current smoking of both products. Product characteristics were significantly more important for cigar initiation and smoking than for cigarettes, and outside pressure was more important for current smoking of cigars than cigarettes. Ratings differed by gender, socioeconomic status, and smoking characteristics., Conclusions: Cigarette and cigar smoking have several overlapping motivations, but key differences were also found, most notably for product characteristics. The FDA's regulation of cigars and cigarettes should focus on addressing key characteristics appealing to young adults to curb dual use., Competing Interests: Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Public health practice involving adolescents is largely focused on preventing or delaying the initiation of risk behavior. However, given the experimental and exploratory nature of this developmental period, this is often impractical. This paper focuses on behavioral transitions and the ways in which youth involved in risk behaviors shift to more promotive behaviors. Based on a positive youth development perspective, in-depth interviews with urban youth were conducted and analyzed to gain an understanding of the influences on behavior change. Specific family support, ability to detach from harmful peer relationships, and school connectedness and vocational support emerged as important to those youths who made a positive behavioral transition. These findings suggest the importance of understanding ways to support the cessation of involvement in risk behaviors and reinforce the significance of contextual influences on youth development.

Background: Social norm interventions have been implemented in schools to address concerns of alcohol use among high school students; however, research in this area has not incorporated measures of variability that may better reflect the complexity of social influences., Purpose: To examine the association between perceived alcohol norms, the student and school-level variability of those norms, and alcohol use behaviors among high school students., Methods: A sample of 25,824 students from 58 high schools completed an online self-report survey. Hierarchical linear regression models were fit to examine the relationships between student- and school-level alcohol norm predictors, within school variability, and current alcohol use and binge drinking., Results: Individual- and school-level norms were predictive of both current alcohol use and binge drinking. Whereas measures of norm diversity at the school-level were not predictive of alcohol use behaviors, individual norm proximity was predictive of both current alcohol use and binge drinking., Discussion: The study findings were both consistent with prior research and support assertions that variability measures should be incorporated into social norms research approaches., Translation to Health Education Practice: The findings support the incorporation of student-level variability measures, which could assist in identifying students who are susceptible to peer influence.

School safety is of great concern for prevention researchers, school officials, parents, and students, yet there are a dearth of assessments that have operationalized school safety from an organizational framework using objective tools and measures. Such a tool would be important for deriving unbiased assessments of the school environment, which in turn could be used as an evaluative tool for school violence prevention efforts. The current paper presents a framework for conceptualizing school safety consistent with Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) model and social disorganization theory, both of which highlight the importance of context as a driver for adolescents' risk for involvement in substance use and violence. This paper describes the development of a novel observational measure, called the School Assessment for Environmental Typology (SAfETy), which applies CPTED and social disorganizational frameworks to schools to measure eight indicators of school physical and social environment (i.e., disorder, trash, graffiti/vandalism, appearance, illumination, surveillance, ownership, and positive behavioral expectations). Drawing upon data from 58 high schools, we provide preliminary data regarding the validity and reliability of the SAfETy and describe patterns of the school safety indicators. Findings demonstrate the reliability and validity of the SAfETy and are discussed with regard to the prevention of violence in schools.