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Sudden rises of pressure are a common hazard in cryogenic systems. This chapter describes such hazards and the methods by which they may be avoided. Pressure sources, the design of pressure relief systems, the proper calculation of relief valve and vent sizes and descriptions of relief valves are all covered. The impact of pressure safety issues on cryogenic system design is discussed. Example calculations, relevant data and references to pressure vessel codes are included.

This chapter presents a brief summary of the text and lists a final set of general cryogenic safety guidelines.

Oxygen Deficiency Hazards (ODH) are ubiquitous in cryogenic systems. Such hazards can be both insidious and potentially fatal. This chapter describes the nature of the hazard including the physiological effects of oxygen depletion and the mitigations taken to reduce the hazard to acceptable levels. A detailed discussion of how to conduct an ODH Risk Analysis and apply mitigations is presented. The proper response to ODH incidents is discussed along with examples of recent studies, both numerical and experimental, of helium venting scenarios. A list of best practices is included. The chapter appendix contains equipment and human factor failure rates to assist in risk analysis along with a complete example ODH risk analysis.

The use of liquefied natural gas (LNG) to move natural gas efficiently from producer to consumer is a major industry. This chapter discusses the hazards associated with LNG. The properties of LNG are covered and unique hazards such as stratification and rollover are discussed. More common hazards such as flammability, pressure rise and oxygen deficiency are described. The phenomenon of rapid phase transition is also covered. Reference to existing codes and standards is emphasized. A list of best practices is included.

Understanding the properties of cryogenic fluids and the cryogenic properties of materials is vital to the safe operation of cryogenic systems. This chapter describes the properties of typical fluids used in cryogenics including helium, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen as they relate to safety. Lists of suitable and unsuitable materials for cryogenic systems are given and material properties most linked to safety are discussed. Unique safety issues such as the impact of ionizing radiation on liquid nitrogen and the flammability hazards associated with charcoal adsorbers are also covered. References to sources of material properties are given. A list of best practices is included. Additional specific properties are provided in Chap. 5 (Oxygen Systems), Chap. 6 (Hydrogen Systems) and Chap. 7 (LNG).

Cryogenics plays an important role at the European Spallation Source, a world class neutron science center, currently under construction in Lund, Sweden. Three principal applications of cryogenics are found at ESS. The SRF cryomodules of the ESS proton linac require cooling at 2 K, 4.5 K and 40 K; the hydrogenmoderator surrounding the target that produces neutrons, requires cooling via 16.5 K helium and LHe is required for many of the scientific instruments. These needs will be met by a set of three cryogenic refrigeration/liquefaction plants and an extensive cryogenic distribution system. Significant progress has been made on the ESS cryogenic system in preparation for the expected first beam on target in 2019. This work includes: funding of industry studies for the accelerator cryoplant, preliminary design of the cryogenic distribution system, investigation of possible in kind contributors and release of the invitation to tender for the accelerator cryoplant.This paper describes the requirements, design solutions and current status of the ESS cryogenic system. The planned recovery of waste heat from the cryogenic plants, a unique aspect of ESS, is described. The procurement of the cryogenic system, expected to be done via a combination of purchase via competitive bids and in kind contributions is also discussed.

The European Spallation Source (ESS) is an intergovernmental project building a multidisciplinary research laboratory based upon the world's most powerful neutron source to be built in Lund, Sweden. The ESS will use a linear accelerator which will deliver protons with 5 MW of power to the target at 2.0 GeV with a nominal current of 62.5 mA. The superconducting part of the linac consists of around 150 niobium cavities cooled with superfluid helium at 2 K. The majority of these cavities are of the elliptical type. They are grouped in cryomodules that hold 4 cavities each, with beam correction optics located between the cryomodules. A dedicated cryoplant will supply the cryomodules with single phase helium through an external cryogenic distribution line. Each of the 30 cryomodules containing elliptical cavities will undergo their site acceptance tests at the ESS cryomodule test stand in Lund. This test stand will use a dedicated 4.5 K cryoplant and warm sub-atmospheric compression to supply the 2 K helium as well as the 40/50 K shield cooling. A test bunker will accommodate one elliptical cavity cryomodule at a time and provide test capacities during both the installation phase as well as later during operation.

The European Spallation Source (ESS) is a neutron-scattering facility being built with extensive international collaboration at Lund, Sweden. The ESS accelerator will deliver protons with 5 MW of power to the target at 2.0 GeV, with a nominal current of 62.5 mA. The superconducting part of the accelerator is about 300 meters long and contains 43 cryomodules. The ESS accelerator cryoplant will provide the cooling for the cryomodules and the cryogenic distribution systeminterconnecting cryoplant and cryomodules. The cryoplant will cover three cryogenic circuits: bath cooling for the cavities at 2 K, the thermal shields at around 40-50 K and 4.5 K forced helium cooling for the power couplers. This paper describes project stages,the cryogenic architecture andthe design basis including cooling capacity, operation modes and interfaces. The important design choices comprising no liquid nitrogen pre-cooling,one integrated cold box, waste heat recovery and process control system strategy as well as the principles of evaluation are presented. All the topics above are implemented and addressed in the technical specification, which has been finished and issued in June 2014. That is a very important step in the development of the ESS cryogenics system.

The European Spallation Source is an accelerator-driven neutron scattering facility, currently under construction in Lund, Sweden. Its proton linac will include 43 superconducting cavity cryomodules. The nominal operating temperature for the cavities is 2 K, with 40-50 K thermal shielding. Required cooling powers will be provided by the accelerator cryoplant and delivered in 4.5 K and 40 K temperature levels. The 2 K temperature level will be produced at each cryomodule. The cryomodules will be connected with the cryoplant by a dedicated cryogenic distribution system. The system will be composed of a cryogenic transfer line with a splitting box and a cryogenic distribution line with 43 valve boxes and an end box. A number of high-level requirements for the ESS linac impose a highly branched structure for the cryogenic distribution system and strongly influence specific choices related to the detailed designs of valve boxes and cryogenic lines. The design of the valve boxes must allow for warming up and cooling down of one or more cryomodules without affecting the others. This feature will help to meet a high availability requirement for the ESS accelerator by shortening the duration of some potential and unavoidable cryomodule repairs. This paper describes main functional and technical requirements for the cryogenic distribution system and presents the ESS in-house preliminary design. The paper also gives a few main points of the project execution plan, which points towards in- kind contribution from two different European institutions.

The European Spallation Source (ESS) is a neutron-scattering facility being built with extensive international collaboration at Lund, Sweden. The ESS accelerator will deliver protons with 5 MW of power to the target at 2.5 GeV, with a nominal current of 50 mA. The superconducting section of the ESS accelerator consists of a total of 208 SRF cavities in cryomodules (CMs) cooled with superfluid helium to 2 K. The CM contains one thermal radiation shield operating from 40 to 50 K. Additionally, 4.5-K gas helium is used to provide forced cooling to the fundamental power couplers for the cavities. The cryogenic cooling for these CMs is provided by one cryogenic plant connected to CMs via a cryogenic distribution line. This article describes the requirements and preliminary design decisions for the ESS accelerator cryoplant. The expected capacity, temperature levels and operating modes are given. Design choices to address important issues of turn-down capability, high availability, and timely restart after pla...

The European Spallation Source (ESS) is an intergovernmental project building a multidisciplinary research laboratory based upon the world's most powerful neutron source to be built in Lund, Sweden. The ESS will use a linear accelerator which will deliver protons with 5 MW of power to the target at 2.5 GeV with a nominal current of 50 mA. The superconducting part of the linac consists of over 150 niobium cavities cooled with superfluid helium at 2 K. A dedicated cryoplant will supply the cryomodules with single phase helium through an external cryogenic transfer line. The elliptical cavity cryomodules will undergo their site acceptance tests at the ESS cryomodule test stand in Lund. This test stand will use a 4.5 K cryoplant and warm sub-atmospheric compression to supply the 2 K helium. We will show the requirements for the test stand, a layout proposal and discuss the factors determining the required cryogenic capacity, test sequence and schedule.

The European Spallation Source (ESS) is a neutron science facility funded by a collaboration of 17 European countries currently under design and construction in Lund, Sweden. The centerpiece of ESS is a 2.5 GeV proton linac utilizing superconducting RF cavities operating at 2 K. In addition to cooling the SRF cavities, cryogenics is also used at ESS in the liquid hydrogen moderators surrounding the target. ESS also uses both liquid helium and liquid nitrogen in a number of the planned neutron instruments. There is also a significant cryogenic installation associated with the site acceptance testing of the ESS cryomodules. The ESS cryogenic system consists of 3 separate helium refrigeration/liquefaction plants supplying the accelerator, target moderators and instruments. An extensive cryogenic distribution system connects the accelerator cryoplant with the cryomodules. This paper describes the preliminary design of the ESS cryogenic system including the expected heat loads. Challenges associated with the required high reliability and turn-down capability will also be discussed. A unique feature of ESS is its commitment to sustainability and energy recovery. A conceptual design for recovering waste heat from the helium compressors for use in the Lund district heating system will also be described.

ADVANCES IN CRYOGENIC ENGINEERING: Transactions of the Cryogenic Engineering Conference - CEC, Anchorage, Alaska; AIP conference proceedings 1573(1), 659–664 (2014). doi:10.1063/1.4860765, The European Spallation Source (ESS), Lund, Sweden will be a 5MW long-pulse neutron spallation research facility and will enable new opportunities for researchers in the fields of life sciences, energy, environmental technology, cultural heritage and fundamental physics. Neutrons are produced by accelerating a high-energy proton beam into a rotating helium-cooled tungsten target. These neutrons pass through moderators to reduce their energy to an appropriate range (< 5 meV for cold neutrons); two of which will use liquid hydrogen at 17 K as the moderating and cooling medium. There are several technical challenges to overcome in the design of a robust system that will operate under such conditions, not least the 20 kW of deposited heat. These challenges and the associated design solutions will be detailed in this paper., Published by Inst., Melville, NY

The European Spallation Source (ESS) project is a neutron spallation source research facility currently being designed and built outside of Lund, Sweden. A linear accelerator delivers a 5 MW, 2.0 GeV, 62.5 mA proton beam to a spallation target to generate fast neutrons. Supercritical hydrogen circulates through two moderators surrounding the target, and transforms the fast neutrons emitted into slow neutrons, which are the final form of useful radiation. The supercritical hydrogen is in turn cooled from a helium cryogenic plant operating at 15-20 K. The supercritical cryogenic hydrogen circuit is a dynamic system, subject to significant changes in heat load. Proper pressure control of this system is critical to assure safe operation. The interaction between the hydrogen system and helium cryoplant poses unique challenges. This paper investigates the impact of the hydrogen system constraints on operation and control of the helium cryoplant, and suggests design options for the helium circuit.

The European Spallation Source (ESS) is an intergovernmental project building a multidisciplinary research laboratory based upon the world's most powerful neutron source to be built in Lund, Sweden. The ESS will use a superconducting linear accelerator which will deliver protons with 5 MW of power to the target at 2.0 GeV with a nominal current of 62.5 mA. A cryomodule test stand will be supplied with helium for the site acceptance tests. The target will have two moderators using supercritical hydrogen to cool down the neutrons. The neutron instruments and the experiments' sample environment will use liquid helium and liquid nitrogen to cool detectors and samples. The ESS cryogenic system is designed to deliver cryogenic cooling capacity to all three client system. A first concept of the ESS cryogenic system was developed in 2010 and 2011 with a limited amount of input from the clients as well as from site infrastructure (i.e. buildings and utilities). The design had to be flexible enough to accommodate future changes in scope, schedule and available infrastructure. Over the following years the design has evolved together with these parameters to achieve a maturity today which allowed us to order the accelerator cryoplant and to start procurement of many of the other parts of the ESS cryogenic system. This paper presents the evolution of the design throughout the years and the factors influencing certain design choices.

The European Spallation Source (ESS) is a neutron-scattering facility funded and supported in collaboration with 17 European countries in Lund, Sweden. Cryogenic cooling at ESS is vital particularly for the linear accelerator, the hydrogen target moderators, a test stand for cryomodules, the neutron instruments and their sample environments. The paper will focus on specific process design criteria, design decisions and their motivations for the helium cryoplants and auxiliary equipment. Key issues for all plants and their process concepts are energy efficiency, reliability, smooth turn-down behaviour and flexibility. The accelerator cryoplant (ACCP) and the target moderator cryoplant (TMCP) in particular need to be prepared for a range of refrigeration capacities due to the intrinsic uncertainties regarding heat load definitions. Furthermore the paper addresses questions regarding process arrangement, 2 K cooling methodology, LN2 precooling, helium storage, helium purification and heat recovery.

The European Spallation Source (ESS) is a neutron-scattering facility being built with extensive international collaboration in Lund, Sweden. The ESS accelerator will deliver protons with 5 MW of power to the target at 2.0 GeV, with a nominal current of 62.5 mA. The superconducting part of the accelerator is about 300 meters long and contains 43 cryomodules. The ESS accelerator cryoplant (ACCP) will provide the cooling for the cryomodules and the cryogenic distribution system that delivers the helium to the cryomodules. The ACCP will cover three cryogenic circuits: Bath cooling for the cavities at 2 K, the thermal shields at around 40 K and the power couplers thermalisation with 4.5 K forced helium cooling. The open competitive bid for the ACCP took place in 2014 with Linde Kryotechnik AG being selected as the vendor. This paper summarizes the progress in the ACCP development and engineering. Current status including final cooling requirements, preliminary process design, system configuration, machine concept and layout, main parameters and features, solution for the acceptance tests, exergy analysis and efficiency is presented.

The full exploitation of the physics potential of future linear colliders such as the JLC, NLC, and TESLA will require the development of polarized positron beams. In the proposed scheme of Balakin and Mikhailichenko [1] a helical undulator is employed to generate photons of several MeV with circular polarization which are then converted in a relatively thin target to generate longitudinally polarized positrons. This experiment, E-166, proposes to test this scheme to determine whether such a technique can produce polarized positron beams of sufficient quality for use in future linear colliders. The experiment will install a meter-long, short-period, pulsed helical undulator in the Final Focus Test Beam (FFTB) at SLAC. A low-emittance 50-GeV electron beam passing through this undulator will generate circularly polarized photons with energies up to 10 MeV. These polarized photons are then converted to polarized positrons via pair production in thin targets. Titanium and tungsten targets, which are both candidates for use in linear colliders, will be tested. The experiment will measure the flux and polarization of the undulator photons, and the spectrum and polarization of the positrons produced in the conversion target, and compare the measurement results to simulations. Thus the proposed experiment directly tests formore » the first time the validity of the simulation programs used for the physics of polarized pair production in finite matter, in particular the effects of multiple scattering on polarization. Successful comparison of the experimental results to the simulations will lead to greater confidence in the proposed designs of polarized positrons sources for the next generation of linear colliders. This experiment requests six-weeks of time in the FFTB beam line: three weeks for installation and setup and three weeks of beam for data taking. A 50-GeV beam with about twice the SLC emittance at a repetition rate of 30 Hz is required.« less

The European Spallation Source (ESS) project currently being designed will be built outside of Lund, Sweden. The ESS design includes three He cryogenic plants, providing cryogenic cooling for the proton accelerator superconducting cavities, for the target cold neutron source, and for the ESS instrument suite. Supercritical H2 circulates through and cools the target cold neutron source, and is in turn cooled from the target He cryogenic plant. This report describes the unique cooling requirements for the supercritical H2 cooling system, defines the operating parameters for the target He cryogenic plant based on expected heat loads, and explores design options for the target cryogenic plant to optimize its performance.

All existing and currently constructed large superconducting particle accelerators use liquid or supercritical helium for transferring cooling power from the cryogenic plant to the accelerator magnets and cavities. These accelerators have extremely elongated structures and therefore require widespread cryogenic distribution systems as well as advanced gas management systems. The design and operation of their cryogenic system are strongly affected by the requirements of high reliability and operating cost minimization. This strongly influences pressure equipment safety strategies. Becauseaccidental helium discharges from the accelerator cryostats and cryomodules cannot be excluded, possibilities of recovering helium releases from safety devices are taken into consideration. Collecting discharged helium and transferring it back to the cryoplant via a long recovery line is not only an option, but also a must. Usually the baseline design choice for the helium recovery system is a set of safety valves connected to a bare relief line that ends in a gas bag. However, rapid and fast discharges of cold helium into warm relief lines can result in significantly unsteady, compressible and thermal flows. Therefore the proper designing and sizing of the recovery system have to be supported by detailed analyses of all expected fluid dynamics and thermodynamics phenomena. This paper describes the numerical simulations of cold helium discharges into a long, warm safety relief line. The simulations have been done for the helium recovery system of the superconducting proton accelerator that is under construction at ESS in Lund, Sweden. The paper discusses the model assumptions and presents some example results.