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Reducing the frequency of drug administration in the treatment of exotic pets is advantageous because it may decrease handling frequency and thus potential stress and injury risk for the animal, increase owner compliance with the prescribed treatment, and decrease need for general anesthesia in patients that cannot be handled safely. Increasing efficient drug plasma concentration using sustained-released delivery systems is an appealing solution. Potential candidates that could provide a promising solution have been investigated in exotic pets. In this article, the technologies that are the closest to being integrated in exotic pet medicine are reviewed: osmotic pumps, nanoparticles, and hydrogels.

This case series describes six confirmed cases of mycotic encephalitis and/or mycotic pneumonia in southern pudu (Pudu puda). One case involved a 10.5-yr-old intact female that presented with an inability to stand, eventually progressing to grand mal seizures. Magnetic resonance imaging showed a lesion within the cerebellar vermis with edema causing cerebellar herniation. The animal was euthanized based on a grave prognosis. Gross and histologic examination revealed primary central nervous system phaeohyphomycosis. Curvularia spicifera was sequenced from the cerebellar tissue. This is the first time this fungus has been reported as a primary central nervous system infection in an artiodactyl species. The remaining five cases occurred in neonates between 17 and 67 days old. Clinical signs varied widely, including facial swelling, weakness, posterior paresis, and sudden death. Antifungal therapy was initiated in three neonatal animals but was unsuccessful in each case. All neonates had active mycotic pneumonia caused by Aspergillus fumigatus or Mucor spp. at time of death; four of these animals also had disseminated disease that caused mycotic encephalitis. This case series indicates that fungal disease should be included in the differential diagnosis list of any pudu presenting for neurologic or respiratory clinical signs.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) emerged as the cause of a global pandemic in 2019-2020. In March 2020, New York City became the epicenter in the United States for the pandemic. On 27 March 2020, a Malayan tiger (Panthera tigris jacksoni) at the Bronx Zoo in New York City developed a cough and wheezing with subsequent inappetence. Over the next week, an additional Malayan tiger and two Amur tigers (Panthera tigris altaica) in the same building and three lions (Panthera leo krugeri) in a separate building also became ill. The index case was anesthetized for diagnostic workup. Physical examination and bloodwork results were unremarkable. Thoracic radiography and ultrasonography revealed a bronchial pattern with peribronchial cuffing and mild lung consolidation with alveolar-interstitial syndrome, respectively. SARS-CoV-2 RNA was identified by real-time, reverse transcriptase PCR (rRT-PCR) on oropharyngeal and nasal swabs and tracheal wash fluid. Cytologic examination of tracheal wash fluid revealed necrosis, and viral RNA was detected in necrotic cells by in situ hybridization, confirming virus-associated tissue damage. SARS-CoV-2 was isolated from the tracheal wash fluid of the index case, as well as the feces from one Amur tiger and one lion. Fecal viral RNA shedding was confirmed in all seven clinical cases and an asymptomatic Amur tiger. Respiratory signs abated within 1-5 days for most animals, although they persisted intermittently for 16 days in the index case. Fecal RNA shedding persisted for as long as 35 days beyond cessation of respiratory signs. This case series describes the clinical presentation, diagnostic evaluation, and management of tigers and lions infected with SARS-CoV-2 and describes the duration of viral RNA fecal shedding in these cases. This report documents the first known natural transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from humans to nondomestic felids.

Amoebiasis is a significant protozoal disease of reptiles causing nonspecific clinical signs including diarrhea, anorexia, and lethargy. It frequently results in acute death. Investigation of the pathophysiology of amoebiasis in reptiles has been hampered by the inability to accurately identify amoeba to the species level using conventional techniques. This study reviewed reptile medical records from the Wildlife Conservation Society's archives from 1998 to 2017. Amoebae were identified histologically in 54 cases in 31 different species. Of these, amoebiasis was the cause of death in 32 (18 chelonians, 7 lizards, and 7 snakes), a significant co-morbidity in 14 (six chelonians, two lizards, and six snakes), and seen incidentally in eight cases (one chelonian, six lizards, and one snake). Relocation from one enclosure to another was also evaluated and 65% of cases had been moved within 180 days of death (median 46 days). Frozen tissue samples from 19 of these cases were tested via an Entamoeba (genus-specific) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay. PCR products were sequenced and Entamoeba species were identified. Six individuals were positive for Entamoeba invadens (three chelonians, two snakes, one lizard), two for Entamoeba ranarum (both snakes), and one for Entamoeba terrapinae (chelonian); the other 10 cases were negative via PCR. Entamoeba ranarum has typically been considered a disease of amphibians with only one report of disease in a snake. Entamoeba terrapinae has only been reported without associated disease in chelonians. These results suggest that amoebiasis is a complicated and nuanced disease of reptiles, and warrants additional study.

Despite numerous barriers to transmission, zoonoses are the major cause of emerging infectious diseases in humans. Among these, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), and ebolaviruses have killed thousands; the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has killed millions. Zoonoses and human-to-animal cross-species transmission are driven by human actions and have important management, conservation, and public health implications. The current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, which presumably originated from an animal reservoir, has killed more than half a million people around the world and cases continue to rise. In March 2020, New York City was a global epicenter for SARS-CoV-2 infections. During this time, four tigers and three lions at the Bronx Zoo, NY, developed mild, abnormal respiratory signs. We detected SARS-CoV-2 RNA in respiratory secretions and/or feces from all seven animals, live virus in three, and colocalized viral RNA with cellular damage in one. We produced nine whole SARS-CoV-2 genomes from the animals and keepers and identified different SARS-CoV-2 genotypes in the tigers and lions. Epidemiologic and genomic data indicated human-to-tiger transmission. These were the first confirmed cases of natural SARS-CoV-2 animal infections in the United States and the first in nondomestic species in the world. We highlight disease transmission at a nontraditional interface and provide information that contributes to understanding SARS-CoV-2 transmission across species. IMPORTANCE The human-animal-environment interface of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is an important aspect of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic that requires robust One Health-based investigations. Despite this, few reports describe natural infections in animals or directly link them to human infections using genomic data. In the present study, we describe the first cases of natural SARS-CoV-2 infection in tigers and lions in the United States and provide epidemiological and genetic evidence for human-to-animal transmission of the virus. Our data show that tigers and lions were infected with different genotypes of SARS-CoV-2, indicating two independent transmission events to the animals. Importantly, infected animals shed infectious virus in respiratory secretions and feces. A better understanding of the susceptibility of animal species to SARS-CoV-2 may help to elucidate transmission mechanisms and identify potential reservoirs and sources of infection that are important in both animal and human health.

The human-animal-environment interface of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is an important aspect of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic that requires robust One Health-based investigations. Despite this, few reports describe natural infections in animals or directly link them to human infections using genomic data. In the present study, we describe the first cases of natural SARS-CoV-2 infection in tigers and lions in the United States and provide epidemiological and genetic evidence for human-to-animal transmission of the virus. Our data show that tigers and lions were infected with different genotypes of SARS-CoV-2, indicating two independent transmission events to the animals. Importantly, infected animals shed infectious virus in respiratory secretions and feces. A better understanding of the susceptibility of animal species to SARS-CoV-2 may help to elucidate transmission mechanisms and identify potential reservoirs and sources of infection that are important in both animal and human health., Despite numerous barriers to transmission, zoonoses are the major cause of emerging infectious diseases in humans. Among these, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), and ebolaviruses have killed thousands; the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has killed millions. Zoonoses and human-to-animal cross-species transmission are driven by human actions and have important management, conservation, and public health implications. The current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, which presumably originated from an animal reservoir, has killed more than half a million people around the world and cases continue to rise. In March 2020, New York City was a global epicenter for SARS-CoV-2 infections. During this time, four tigers and three lions at the Bronx Zoo, NY, developed mild, abnormal respiratory signs. We detected SARS-CoV-2 RNA in respiratory secretions and/or feces from all seven animals, live virus in three, and colocalized viral RNA with cellular damage in one. We produced nine whole SARS-CoV-2 genomes from the animals and keepers and identified different SARS-CoV-2 genotypes in the tigers and lions. Epidemiologic and genomic data indicated human-to-tiger transmission. These were the first confirmed cases of natural SARS-CoV-2 animal infections in the United States and the first in nondomestic species in the world. We highlight disease transmission at a nontraditional interface and provide information that contributes to understanding SARS-CoV-2 transmission across species.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) emerged as the cause of a global pandemic in 2019-2020. In March 2020, New York City became the epicenter in the United States for the pandemic. On 27 March 2020, a Malayan tiger (

This case series describes six confirmed cases of mycotic encephalitis and/or mycotic pneumonia in southern pudu (

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) emerged as the cause of a global pandemic in 2019-2020. In March 2020 New York City became the USA epicenter for the pandemic. On March 27, 2020 a Malayan tiger (Panthera tigris jacksoni) at the Bronx Zoo in New York City developed a cough and wheezing with subsequent inappetence. Over the next week, an additional Malayan tiger and two Amur tigers (P. t. altaica) in the same building and three lions (Panthera leo krugeri) in a separate building also became ill. The index case was immobilized, and physical examination and bloodwork results were unremarkable. Thoracic radiography and ultrasonography revealed peribronchial cuffing with bronchiectasis, and mild lung consolidation with alveolar-interstitial syndrome, respectively. SARS-CoV-2 RNA was identified by real-time, reverse transcriptase PCR (rRT-PCR) on oropharyngeal and nasal swabs and tracheal wash fluid. Cytologic examination of tracheal wash fluid revealed necrosis, and viral RNA was detected in necrotic cells by in situ hybridization, confirming virus-associated tissue damage. SARS-CoV-2 was isolated from the tracheal wash fluid of the index case, as well as the feces from one Amur tiger and one lion. Fecal viral RNA shedding was confirmed in all seven clinical cases and an asymptomatic Amur tiger. Respiratory signs abated within 1-5 days for most animals, though persisted intermittently for 16 days in the index case. Fecal RNA shedding persisted for as long as 35 days beyond cessation of respiratory signs. This case series describes the clinical presentation, diagnostic evaluation, and management of tigers and lions infected with SARS-CoV-2, and describes the duration of viral RNA fecal shedding in these cases. This report documents the first known natural transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from humans to animals in the USA, and is the first report of SARS-CoV-2 in non-domestic felids.

Snake fungal disease (SFD; Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola) is posing a significant threat to several free-ranging populations of pitvipers. Triazole antifungals have been proposed for the treatment of mycoses in reptiles; however, data are lacking about their safety and efficacy in snakes with SFD. Study 1 investigated in vitro susceptibility, and identified that plasma concentrations250 ng/ml (voriconazole) and1,000 ng/ml (itraconazole) may be effective in vivo for SFD. In Study 2, the pharmacokinetics after a single subcutaneous voriconazole injection were assessed in apparently healthy free-ranging cottonmouths (Agkistrodon piscivorus). Based on pilot-study results, four snakes were administered a single injection of voriconazole (5 mg/kg). One pilot snake and three full-study snakes died within 12 hr of voriconazole administration. All surviving snakes maintained plasma concentrations250 ng/ml for 12-24 hr. In Study 3, two Eastern massasaugas (Sistrurus catenatus) and a timber rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus horridus) diagnosed with SFD were treated with voriconazole delivered by subcutaneous osmotic pumps. The timber rattlesnake (12.1-17.5 mg/kg/hr) reached therapeutic concentrations, whereas the massasaugas (1.02-1.6 mg/kg/hr) did not. In Study 4, the pharmacokinetics of a single 10-mg/kg per-cloaca dose of itraconazole (Sporanox®) was evaluated in seven apparently healthy free-ranging cottonmouths. Similarly, the plasma and tissue concentrations did not meet therapeutic concentrations based on in vitro data. The data presented in this report serve as an initial step toward understanding the pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and safety of triazole antifungals in pitviper species with SFD. Further study is needed to determine the appropriate dose and route of administration of triazole antifungals in pitviper species.

Vector-borne

Bacon, Smith and Rugg first identified a link between the DC resistance of a coated panel after exposure to salt solution and the performance of the coating in an exposure test. Mayne explained this as “resistance inhibition”. This paper will consider what coating resistance measured by Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) tells us about factors controlling the corrosion process. It shows that the activation energy for ion conduction does not correspond with that for the corrosion process, suggesting that the paint resistance we measure is not the controlling factor. Furthermore, tests on a model galvanic cell reveal a significant influence of both electrode polarisation and resistance inhibition.

An adult female Taylor's cantil (Agkistrodon bilineatus taylori) presented with marked spinal and mandibular osteomyelitis that cultured positive for Salmonella enterica subsp. houtenae, serovar IV 43:z4,z32:-. Progression of osteomyelitis was arrested by treatment using amikacin (0.026 mg/kg per hour) delivered via subcutaneous osmotic pump for 10 mo, replacing the pump every 4 wk. No adverse effects on renal function were appreciated throughout the course of therapy. Amikacin therapy was discontinued after improvement with treatment, but 5 mo later, bony lesions worsened, and an additional abscess formed at the previous pump site. The animal's condition declined and euthanasia was elected. Postmortem examination confirmed marked osteomyelitis with Salmonella infection of same serovar as the initial biopsy. This report highlights the pathogenicity of the S. enterica subsp. houtenae serovar and the ability to deliver effective amikacin dosage via osmotic pump to arrest osteomyelitis due to salmonellosis in a venomous snake.

OBJECTIVE To identify important subspecies and serovars of Salmonella enterica in a captive reptile population and clinically relevant risk factors for and signs of illness in Salmonella-positive reptiles. DESIGN Retrospective cross-sectional study. ANIMALS 11 crocodilians (4 samples), 78 snakes (91 samples), 59 lizards (57 samples), and 34 chelonians (23 samples) at the Bronx Zoo from 2000 through 2012. PROCEDURES Data pertaining to various types of biological samples obtained from reptiles with positive Salmonella culture results and the reptiles themselves were analyzed to determine period prevalence of and risk factors for various Salmonella-related outcomes. RESULTS Serovar distribution differences were identified for sample type, reptile phylogenetic family, and reptile origin and health. Salmonella enterica subsp enterica was the most common subspecies in Salmonella cultures (78/175 [45%]), identified across all reptilian taxa. Salmonella enterica subsp diarizonae was also common (42/175 [24%]) and was recovered almost exclusively from snakes (n = 33), many of which had been clinically ill (17). Clinically ill reptiles provided 37% (64) of Salmonella cultures. Factors associated with an increased risk of illness in reptiles with a positive culture result were carnivorous diet and prior confiscation. Snakes had a higher risk of illness than other reptile groups, whereas lizards had a lower risk. Bony changes, dermatitis, and anorexia were the most common clinical signs. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE This study provided new information on Salmonella infection or carriage and associated clinical disease in reptiles. Associations identified between serovars or subspecies and reptile groups or clinical disease can guide management of Salmonella-positive captive reptiles.

Vector-borne Plasmodium spp. infect a wide range of bird species. Although infections may be asymptomatic, certain genera, especially those that evolved in regions without endemic malaria, appear particularly susceptible to symptomatic disease, leading to morbidity and mortality. High mortalities associated with malaria infections have been documented in captive species of Sphenisciformes, Somateria, and Larosterna, all genera that evolved in climates with low mosquito exposure. To better characterize trends in Plasmodium-related mortality in a zoological collection in New York, necropsy reports for birds of all three genera that died between 1998 and February 2018 were analyzed; comparisons were made between birds that died with or without evidence of malaria infection. A seasonal peak in deaths was observed in birds regardless of their malaria status. There was no significant difference in the age of birds at death between malaria-positive and malaria-negative animals. These results suggest that age and season of death were not associated with malaria status. To investigate an association between parasite lineage and clinical outcome, polymerase chain reaction was used to identify parasite lineage in necropsied birds as well as healthy birds sampled as part of surveillance studies. Twelve different Plasmodium lineages were identified. The relative prevalence of parasite lineages was compared between necropsy and surveillance samples. A single parasite lineage, SGS1 (species: Plasmodium relictum), was significantly more likely to be found in surveillance samples; it was detected in a plurality of surveillance data but found in only one necropsy case. Other parasite lineages were more likely to be found in necropsies than in surveillance samples, most notably SEIAUR01 (species: Plasmodium cathemerium). These data may be consistent with a difference in virulence between parasite lineages. This investigation has implications for the monitoring and care of vulnerable avian species.

The Bronx River in Bronx, New York, US spans an area of significant human development and has been subject to historic and ongoing industrial contamination. We evaluated the health of freeranging native common snapping turtles ( Chelydra serpentina) and nonnative invasive red-eared sliders ( Trachemys scripta) in a segment of the Bronx River between May and July 2012. In 18 snapping turtles and nine sliders, complete physical examinations were performed, ectoparasites collected, and blood was analyzed for contaminants (mercury, thallium, cadmium, arsenic, lead, selenium, oxychlordane, alpha-chlordane, dieldrin, DDD, DDE, polychlorinated biphenyls). Complete blood counts and the presence of hemoparasites were determined in 16 snapping turtles and nine sliders. Swabs of the choana and cloaca were screened for ranavirus, adenovirus, herpesvirus, and Mycoplasma spp. by PCR in 39 snapping turtles and 28 sliders. Both turtle species exhibited bioaccumulation of various environmental contaminants, particularly organochlorines and polychlorinated biphenyls. Molecular screening revealed a unique herpesvirus in each species. A Mycoplasma sp. previously isolated from emydid turtles was detected in red-eared sliders while a unique Mycoplasma sp. was identified in common snapping turtles. Ranaviruses and adenoviruses were not detected. Our study established a baseline health assessment to which future data can be compared. Moreover, it served to expand the knowledge and patterns of health markers, environmental contaminants, and microorganisms of freeranging chelonians.

Key factors affecting the cathodic delamination process of an unpigmented epoxy coating from mild steel have been systematically investigated. These are: film thickness, cation mobility and electrolyte concentration in the test solution, temperature, and specimen potential. The effect of addition of pigments has also been examined. Results show that cathodic delamination of unpigmented epoxy from mild steel follows parabolic kinetics and is only slightly slower with thicker coatings. Pigmented epoxy coatings, however, are best fitted to a linear, or paralinear equation. With alkali metal chlorides, the rate of delamination of unpigmented epoxy showed a strong dependence on cation mobility as seen previously, but potassium chloride did not fit the general trend. Increased concentration of NaCl solution results in a faster delamination rate. There is little difference between delamination rates at 40 °C and 50 °C but delamination is significantly faster than at either 20 °C or 30 °C (which is faster than 20 °C). Cathodic delamination rate increases with increasingly negative applied potentials, but the free corrosion potential falls to an essentially constant value after an initial induction period, so is not responsible for the decrease in delamination rate over time. It is proposed that ion transport along a coating/metal interfacial layer is the rate-determining process for cathodic delamination of unpigmented epoxy from mild steel. Scanning acoustic microscopy identified different patterns of blisters within the delaminated zone for pigmented or unpigmented coatings.

A review of avian cataracts at the Wildlife Conservation Society's Bronx Zoo between 1992 and 2011 was conducted. Ninety cataracts in 54 birds from 42 species were identified. Cataracts were found primarily during examination for ocular abnormalities (29/54, 53.7%) or opportunistically (13/54, 24.1%) and were most commonly diagnosed as mature (22/90, 24.4%). Systemic medical conditions diagnosed in these birds included West Nile virus (4/54, 7.4%), head trauma (3/54, 5.6%), plumbism and Salmonella Pullorum (1/54, 1.9%), Marek's disease (1/54, 1.9%), leukocytosis (1/54, 1.9%), and hyperglycemia (1/54, 1.9%). Cataracts were progressive in seven birds of four species. Unilateral enucleation was performed in 2/54 (3.7%) birds, and 12/54 (22.2%) underwent cataract removal (phacoemulsification in 16 eyes and standard extracapsular cataract extraction in 2 eyes). Concurrent ocular abnormalities, such as corneal scarring and lens-induced uveitis, were seen in 2/18 (11.1%) eyes preoperatively in the group undergoing cataract removal, 2/2 (100%) eyes preoperatively in the group undergoing enucleation, and 33/70 (47.1%) of eyes that did not undergo surgery. For birds undergoing cataract removal, complications included successfully treated cardiorespiratory arrest intraoperatively (1/12, 8.3%) as well as postanesthetic complications of acute respiratory distress and tracheal stricture (2/12, 16.7%). The most common postoperative ocular abnormalities included posterior capsular opacity (4/18 eyes, 22.2%) and corneal scarring (2/18 eyes, 11.1%). Lens cortical regrowth and marked posterior lens capsular opacity occurred in one eye of one bird after phacoemulsification, necessitating a second ocular surgery. A successful outcome, as determined by improved postoperative visual acuity, was seen in 10/12 (83.3%) birds undergoing cataract removal, and 5/12 (41.7%) of these birds were alive >3 yr after surgery. The results of this review will aid clinicians in identifying common stages of cataracts, determining eligibility for cataract surgery, and managing postoperative complications in avian patients.

An epoxy-coated mild steel panel was coupled with bare mild steel to characterise the cathodic reaction underneath the paint and study the short term change in properties of the coating under cathodic polarisation. It showed that the cathodic reaction obeys the Tafel law and is not controlled by either the high coating resistance or oxygen transport through the coating.

The basic principles of hematology used in mammalian medicine can be applied to reptiles. Available phlebotomy sites vary with the taxa and may be chosen based on the experience of the handler or phlebotomist, health status or temperament of the patient, and species. Methods of analysis and the cytologic appearance of erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes are different from those of mammals and also vary by taxa. Many causes for abnormalities of the reptilian hemogram are similar to those for mammals, although additional factors, such as venipuncture site, season, hibernation status, captivity status, and environmental factors, can affect measured values. Interpretation of hematologic results can be frustrating, although new case reports and research studies help to elucidate possible causes that are often unique to reptiles.

The Wildlife Conservation Society's Bronx Zoo has been housing and breeding slender-tailed cloud rats (Phleomys pallidus) since 1985. Records of 82 animals from 1985 to 2013 were reviewed for this study. The animals were kept successfully in small family groups with a single adult male, multiple adult females, and their offspring. Sexual maturity was noted at approximately 2 years of age and gestation length ranged from 52 to 55 days. Animals were fed a diet including a complete commercial pelleted feed, mixed greens, carrot or yam, mixed hard nuts, and locally sourced browse. Medical conditions requiring treatment in neonates were often fatal whereas most medical conditions in adults were survivable. The most common cause of morbidity and mortality in neonates was maternal neglect or trauma (42%, 5/12 antemortem problems; cause of death in 32%, 8/25). The most significant problems in adults were cryptococcal pneumonia and trauma. Cryptococcus sp. was the cause of death in 11 cases (34%, 11/32) and significant comorbidity in an additional three cases. Treatment with antifungal medications was attempted but was unsuccessful in four cases. Many cases of trauma were treated successfully with conservative management or limited intervention. In four cases, treatment was complicated by extensive self-mutilation after surgical repair of traumatic lesions, which resulted in death or euthanasia. Lymphoplasmacytic thyroiditis was a common postmortem finding in adults (95%, 21/22 for which the thyroid gland was examined histologically). It is unclear if thyroiditis resulted in functional hypothyroidism so the significance of this finding is undetermined.

Data on canine distemper virus (CDV) vaccination were collected on 812 large felids (351 tigers, Panthera tigris; 220 lions, Panthera leo; 143 snow leopards, Panthera uncia; 50 leopards, Panthera pardus; and 48 jaguars, Panthera onca) from 48 institutions to assess vaccine use and safety. The documented individual vaccination events with multiple products numbered 2,846. Canarypox-vectored CDV vaccines were the most commonly used vaccines (96.3% of all vaccinations) and the Purevax® Ferret Distemper (PFD) vaccine was the most commonly used canarypox-vectored vaccine (91.0% of all vaccinations). Modified live virus (MLV) CDV vaccines were used for 3.7% of all vaccinations, and only in tigers, lions, and snow leopards. Adverse effects were reported after 0.5% (13 of 2,740) of the canarypox-vectored vaccinations and after 2.9% (3 of 104) of the MLV CDV vaccinations. This low complication rate suggests large felids may not be as sensitive to adverse effects of MLV CDV vaccines as other exotic carnivores. Serological data were available from 159 individuals (69 tigers, 31 lions, 31 snow leopards, 22 jaguars, and 6 Amur leopards, Panthera pardus orientalis) vaccinated with the PFD vaccine, and 66.0% of vaccinates seroconverted (defined as acquiring a titer ≥1: 24) at some point postvaccination: 24.3% after one vaccination, 55.8% after two vaccinations, 54.3% after three vaccinations, and 79.2% after four or more vaccinations. Among animals exhibiting seroconversion after the initial PFD vaccinations, 88.9% still had titers ≥12 mo and ≥24 mo after the last vaccination, and 87.5% had titers ≥1: 24 at ≥36 mo after the last vaccination. The study was unable to assess fully the safety of vaccination with either canarypox-vectored or MLV CDV vaccines during gestation because of the small number of animals vaccinated while pregnant (n = 6, all vaccinated with PFD).

This work tested painted steel panels in chloride solutions at 50 °C using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and compared performance with tests at room temperature. EIS spectra were measured over a range of temperature while the samples cooled and activation energies for ion migration in the coating and the corrosion reaction at the interface were determined by analysis based on fitting to model circuits. The significance of the activation energies was explored from examination of transient behaviour after a sudden temperature change.

Electrochemical noise measurement (ENM) of the spontaneous perturbation of current and potential of coated samples immersed in electrolyte determines the resistance of the coating system. ENM offers several advantages: the measurement is relatively simple to make, it is completely non-interfering with the natural process occurring on the surface and the data are simple to interpret. The original standard arrangement for ENM using a pair of samples has limitations for practical applications because two separate and nominally identical working electrodes are needed and this requirement is very hard (if not impossible) to fulfil in on-site application. This paper describes an alternative approach for electrochemical noise measurement to measure the noise resistance ( R n ) of protective coatings based on use of just one working electrode. In this so-called “Single Cell” (SC) arrangement the electrochemical noise current and electrochemical noise potential between the working electrode and a non-noisy reference electrode is measured separately and consecutively. This new approach has been tested for a range of coating resistances. Also, the coating's resistance has been measured using DC resistance and EIS (at low frequency) and the results were compared with the R n obtained from the single cell (SC) set up.

This research concentrates on the thermal ageing of a full 3-coat system with sacrificial pigment (zin c rich) primer on mild steel where the temperature dependence test is conducted to explore the correlation between the coating resi stances with the corrosion rate underneath the coating. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is introduced over a range of te mperature to extract activation energies for the rate of controlling pro cesses in the corrosion reactions. It is expected t hat the zinc rich primer does not form a barrier coating for the metal substrate rath er it will be the most active component of the subs trate in the electrochemistry. Full 3-coat system with zinc rich primer show the extrac ted activation energy from coating resistance is si gnificantly lower than the activation energy extracted from the charge transfe r resistance. This suggested that the coating resis tance from EIS cannot be controlling the corrosion reaction. The activation energies generated for the corrosion process here (kJmol -1 ) are very much higher than those of ion transport through the coat ing (19‐37 kJmol -1 ) during early immersion. Further interesting findi ngs come from the activation energy trends over time particu larly for the corrosion process which shown that th e value is decreasing where at the end of exposure, the activation energy values f or coating and charge transfer resistance become qu ite similar. It is suggested that at this stage ion transport in the coating might be controlling the corrosion process unlike at the be ginning; the activation energy is getting smaller due to coating degradation.

A crossover study was performed in 12 Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) undergoing preshipment examinations to compare a partially reversible to a fully reversible intramuscular chemical immobilization protocol. The partially reversible protocol (MKA) consisted of induction with medetomidine (0.06 +/- 0.009 mg/kg) and ketamine (2.03 +/- 0.315 mg/kg) and antagonism by atipamezole (0.30 +/- 0.044 mg/kg). The fully reversible protocol (CXNA) consisted of induction with carfentanil (0.009 +/- 0.003 mg/kg) and xylazine (0.08 +/- 0.019 mg/kg) and antagonism by naltrexone (0.867 +/- 0.332 mg/kg) and atipamezole (0.105 +/- 0.023 mg/ kg). Animals were monitored for quality and length of induction and recovery, depth of immobilization, heart rate, respiratory rate, rectal temperature, indirect mean blood pressure (MBP), oxygen saturation, and end-tidal carbon dioxide concentration. Blood was collected for serum cortisol measurement. Significant (P0.05) differences included a higher MBP, higher serum cortisol, and longer recovery time with MKA compared to CXNA. In addition, the quality of induction and recovery were different. With MKA, animals ambulated less during induction, remained recumbent longer during recovery, and demonstrated more ataxia on rising. Despite differences between the protocols, both provided an acceptable level of immobilization for pre-shipment testing to be done and appeared to be safe in the study population. These differences should be taken into consideration when selecting the anesthetic protocol because either regimen may be more or less desirable for different medical or immobilization settings.

No-rinse conversion coatings based on KMnO4, were applied to aluminium alloys and pure aluminium, and examined with X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy (XANES). Some specimens were prepared beforehand and other specimens were freshly prepared immediately before testing, so that early changes in the coatings could be studied. A significant difference in composition was found between the one-week old specimens and the fresh. The old specimens consisted predominantly of Mn oxides, while the fresh specimens contained a substantial proportion of KMnO4. When fresh specimens were rinsed with de-ionised water, soluble KMnO4 was removed and the spectrum now showed evidence for mixed oxides, but no KMnO4, like the older specimens. Monitoring of specimens after exposure to 0.5% NaCl solution showed little further change in the film.

The performance and characteristics of a no rinse, titanium based conversion coating on an aluminium alloy have been studied using electrochemical techniques and transmission electron microscopy. Coatings were prepared from an aqueous H2 TiF6 solution, spin coated onto aluminium alloy 3003. The electrochemical behaviour evolves with time during exposure to 0·5% and 3·5%NaCl. Polarisation curves and impedance data correspond well and indicate that the anodic inhibition and polarisation resistance increase dramatically with time. However, no cathodic inhibition is found. Metastable pitting was observed at potentials below the pitting potential. TEM micrographs taken from cross-sections of coated material show that the coating thickness is of the order of 30 nm and that with immersion a mixed metal oxide layer appears at the substrate/coating interface.

Transmission electron microscopy and in situ X-ray diffraction have been used to characterize the hydrogenation mechanism of ball-milled 2NaH + MgB2. Hydrogen absorption was performed under 50 bar hydrogen while heating from room temperature to 400 °C. A new and unknown hydride phase is observed at about 280 °C. This phase remains stable up to 320 °C and subsequently disappears, followed by the formation of perovskite-type NaMgH3 at about 330 °C. At 380 °C, crystals of NaBH4 appear and grow.

Aqueous corrosion and hydrogenation have become major limiting factors to the use of zirconium alloys as fuel cladding and assembly components in water-cooled nuclear reactors. The metal-oxide interface has been a particular focus of previous research, but there is still no clear understanding of what is present at the interface at different stages of the complex oxidation process. We report here a systematic investigation using state-of-the-art instrumentation on the interfaces in several zirconium alloys corroded for different times. We have shown that thin intermediate oxide layers with compositions close to ZrO can be observed in almost all the pre-transition samples studied, and that this layer thickens during the pre-transition stage. Just before the kinetic transition, a large variation in the suboxide width was detected, suggesting that the kinetic transition is an extremely local process. After transition the suboxide was generally absent. In the suboxide locations different structures, including an unidentified phase, were found. The oxygen-saturated (∼30 at.% O) metal regions found beneath the oxide are thickest in the (late) pre-transition samples and significantly thinner in the post-transition samples. We suggest that the suboxide cannot by itself act as a protective layer and conclude that it is the development of interlinked porosity down to the metal-oxide interface that is the reason for the transition in oxidation kinetics. © 2012 Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Electrochemical studies were made of the influence of Cu on pitting behavior and active dissolution of 25% Cr duplex stainless steels (DSS) in chloride-containing neutral and acid solutions. Alloys with increased Cu content showed higher pitting potentials (Ep) in 1 M hydrochloric acid (HCl) and 3.5% sodium chloride (NaCl) solutions. In HCl, the current density in the active state also was lower for the Cu-containing alloys. However, the critical pitting temperature (CPT) in ferric chloride (FeCl3) was not improved significantly by addition of Cu. Pitting in all environments took place preferentially in the ferrite phase.

Cathodic disbonding of an unpigmented epoxy coating around a defect was studied with samples fully- and semi-immersed in 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution. Disbonding and the growth of blisters were monitored by scanning acoustic microscopy, which showed growth of blisters within the disbond for both type of samples. Scanning Kelvin probe potential maps suggest that blisters first form at local anodes. For semi-immersed samples, disbonding of the immersed part and the non-immersed part propagate with parabolic kinetics at identical rates, similar to fully-immersed samples. This implies that ion transport is along the coating–metal interface in both cases.

In situ electrochemical scanning tunneling microscopy (ESTM) was used to study the process of iron oxidation in alkaline solution. Images of the iron surface were taken at a potential of −1350 mV ( Ag AgCl ) after cycling to different more positive potentials. It was shown that there is a correlation between the surface structure and electrochemical reactions occurring at potentials corresponding to different anodic peaks on a cyclic voltammogram. It was found that sweeping to the potential of −1100 mV, corresponding to the appearance of the first anodic peak on the cyclic voltammogram, caused no noticeable reconstruction of the electrode surface. Cycling to the potential of −950 mV, corresponding to the potential range of the second anodic peak, results in a roughening of the iron surface and formation of features characteristic of crystallographic etching. Sweeping to more positive potentials leads to smoothing of surface due to oxidation-reduction reactions of the surface. These results provide support to the interpretation of the first anodic peak on the cyclic voltammogram as oxidation of adsorbed hydrogen, and the second peak as an active-passive transition followed by formation of the passive oxide layer.

A numerical method of plotting current density maps from SKP potential maps to reveal patterns of electrochemical activity at the interface between an organic coating and a metal is described and used to analyse some previously published SKP maps.

The absorption and desorption properties of 3NaH + MgB 2 + 4H 2 ↔ 2NaBH 4 + NaMgH 3 composite are described. This system shows better kinetics compared to 2NaH + MgB 2 + 4H 2 ↔ 2NaBH 4 + MgH 2 . This is attributed to the high mobility of hydrogen in NaMgH 3 , which results in full hydrogenation and dehydrogenation. Absorption measurement was performed in 100 bar hydrogen from room temperature to 300 °C, while desorption measurement was carried out in 1 bar hydrogen from room temperature to 450 °C.

The mechanism of degradation of epoxy-phenolic lacquer coated thin electro-chrome-coated mild steel (food can material) has been investigated in brine using a novel combination of experimental techniques. A scanning Kelvin probe (SKP) was used to map electrochemical potential distributions beneath the coating at several stages of exposure to 0.17 M (1% w/w) NaCl solution. An interesting sequence of events was observed, especially at defects and blisters in the lacquer. These results have been correlated with those obtained in parallel by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM) and optical microscopy. The SKP results showed coating defects to be negative (anodic) with respect to the surrounding area in the initial stages of exposure (⩽36 h). This was followed by a gradual shift in the relative potential to values of the defect and the surrounding coated metal, with the defects becoming the cathode and the corrosion products formed in the defects becoming the cathode reactant. The reduction of red rust to magnetite was confirmed using the optical microscope. SAM revealed blisters, within which new anodes were detected by SKP.

Thermal stability of as-received LiAlH4 and milled LiAlH4 has been investigated. The thermal decomposition mechanism of as-received LiAlH4 depends on the temperature–time history. Apparent activation energies and enthalpies of the reactions have been obtained. During milling treatment, the high temperature and pressures locally induced by shocks lead to LiAlH4 mechanically decomposition. The decomposition temperatures of LiAlH4 and Li3AlH6 are both reduced by ∼60 °C due to particle size reduction produced by mechanical milling. Besides, the activation energy of the decomposition reaction of LiAlH4 decreases as compared to as-received LiAlH4. Moreover, a layer of oxide (∼5 nm) at the surface of the milled alanate Li3AlH6 is observed. This layer could have a drastic influence on decomposition H-kinetics.

The desorption mechanism of as-milled 2NaBH 4 + MgH 2 was investigated by volumetric analysis, X-ray diffraction and electron microscopy. Hydrogen desorption was carried out in 0.1 bar hydrogen pressure from room temperature up to 450 °C at a heating rate of 3 °C min −1 . Complete dehydrogenation was achieved in two steps releasing 7.84 wt.% hydrogen. Desorption reaction in this system is kinetically restricted and limited by the growth of MgB 2 at the Mg/Na 2 B 12 H 12 interface where the intermediate product phases form a barrier to diffusion. During desorption, MgB 2 particles are observed to grow as plates around NaH particles.

The interactions of composition, microstructure, and corrosion processes have been studied extensively. In stress-corrosion cracking (SCC)—where mechanical stresses can accelerate failure—material chemistry and microstructure can alter the corrosion attack as well as influence deformation and fracture. The mechanisms through which these effects are felt, however, do not apply universally and are often difficult to elucidate. This article reviews mechanisms wherein corrosion behavior is the main influence, examining how segregation and precipitation at grain boundaries affects intergranular SCC.

A Zn–Fe bi-electrode coated with different clear lacquers was exposed to NaCl solution, so that a well-defined galvanic cell was established with the current directly measured by a zero-resistance ammeter (ZRA). Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was periodically used to monitor the two coated electrodes individually or coupled together. Transient potentiostatic current measurements were also made after applying potential steps of different amplitudes to the individual metals, from which polarization curves were plotted. The ohmic potential drop in the paint was corrected using film resistance values determined by EIS. Evans diagrams were thus plotted from the iR -corrected polarization curves to make the first experimental determination of Evans diagrams as used by Mayne 1 to illustrate his resistance inhibition model.

We report a technique of fabrication of Al nanoislands of dimensions as small as 3 nm. Thin Al foils were anodized from both the surfaces under conditions suitable for the growth of porous alumina. Unanodized Al nanoislands were thus formed at the interpore regions and characterized by transmission electron microscopy. The method allows control over the distribution and the size of the nanoscale islands through the parameters of the anodization process, and automatic passivation by surrounding alumina.

Five novel DNA-dependent DNA polymerase (Dpol) herpesviral sequences were generated using nested consensus polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in clinical samples from a harbor seal (Phoca vitulina), bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), orca (Orcinus orca), California sea lion (Zalophus californianus), and a Phocid herpesvirus 2 (PhHV-2) isolate from a harbor seal (used as positive control). These novel sequences and other representative herpesvirus sequences were included in Bayesian and Maximum Likelihood analyses to illustrate the phylogeny of herpesviruses amongst the marine mammal host species and in comparison to those of other animals. All 19 novel and known marine mammal herpesviruses included in the analyses aligned with members of the Alphaherpesvirinae or Gammaherpesvirinae subfamilies. The novel harbor seal herpesvirus clustered with members of the Macavirus genus, subfamily Gammaherpesvirinae. The novel bottlenose dolphin herpesvirus clustered together in a monophyletic group with another delphinid alphaherpesvirus but could not be associated with an established genus. The orca herpesvirus also clustered with a delphinid alphaherpesvirus and formed a separate clade. The sea lion herpesvirus clustered with PhHV-2. PhHV-1 clustered with varicelloviruses and PhHV-2 clustered strongly in the Gammaherpesvirinae genus Percavirus. All cetacean gammaherpesviruses formed a monophyletic clade and could not be associated with an established gammaherpesviral genus.

The pitting and repassivation behaviour of two aluminium alloys, AA5083 and spray formed Al–Mg–Li were investigated. The alloys did not exhibit classic repassivation on the back scan instead showing a transition to high current, potential independent behaviour. A series of experiments were performed to establish a clearer understanding of the mechanisms occurring in this region. The switch from pit growth to one-dimensional tunnelling is now believed to cause the transition. This is supported by SEM observation of tunnels using a resin replica technique. Tunnels were seen after the transition, but there was no evidence that tunnels were present before the transition.

Permanganate-based conversion treatments incorporating silica nano-particles + nitrate ions or other inhibitive additives have been examined by corrosion and adhesion tests on samples coated with paint and by polarisation measurements on treated, but uncoated AA 3003 panels. Although electrochemical behaviour is not improved by addition of the silica nano-particles, in many cases they substantially improve the performance of PVDF-coated samples in adhesion and accelerated corrosion tests.

Scanning acoustic microscopy was used to image blistering of samples from food cans, internally coated with an epoxy-modified polyester lacquer, during exposure to aerated brine. Results were subjected to quantitative image analysis and have been discussed in the light of different models of blistering. The samples were taken from the side wall of the can, which had been formed by the draw–redraw process from pre-lacquered electro-chrome-coated steel sheet, thus providing insights into the effects of lacquer deformation.

This work investigated the corrosion of a bimetallic substrate coated with thin un-pigmented films of poly-vinyl butyral (PVB). Using a combination of zero-resistance ammetry (ZRA), Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) and Scanning Kelvin Probe (SKP) it has been demonstrated that for PVB-coated zinc–steel couples immersed in NaCl solution, the corrosion current flowing between anode and cathode can do so via two pathways – through the coating, as described by Mayne, and also, via a very thin solution layer at the coating/substrate interface. During wet–dry cycling interfacial currents are shown to continue to flow after the specimens have been removed from the solution. The impedance of the coating showed different behaviour depending on whether it was on the zinc or the steel, as did the response to changes in solution concentration.