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This chapter considers various models of disability; some philosophical reasoning behind the inclusion of people with disabilities (PwD) in the outdoors; some of the practical issues associated with their involvement; and suggests a range of alternative models for inclusion of PwD into outdoor programmes. It argues that some research into the impact participation has on the lives of disabled people, and opportunities for further investigation. D. Richardson reminds us that: Disabled persons participate in outdoor adventure activities not for their therapeutic benefits but for the same reasons as do able bodied people – for enjoyment, a love of the natural environment, a feeling of accomplishment and the opportunity to overcome natural obstacles and test their own limits. The inclusion of PwD in the same activities as their peers offers those with disabilities a degree of normalisation that helps reduce the stigmatisation of disabled people. The inclusion of PwD into an outdoor programme will invariably have an impact on that programme.

Single-subject and statistical inference are virtually identical. With both techniques change is inferred when variability across conditions is sufficiently large to accommodate variability within conditions, replication is the final arbiter of whether change is likely to occur by chance, a large effect size is preferred to a small consistent difference, there are similar threats to internal validity, and generalizability of results is valued. Knowing how to use statistical inferential procedures would make behavior analysts more methodologically sophisticated. It would also help them to critically evaluate research in other areas of psychology, obtain research grants, and publish their research in diverse outlets, which would help others to see behavior-analytic work.

When human subjects lose money in 50% of multiple-schedule components, the most common finding is a decreased response rate in the other components (i.e., punishment induction). When money is lost in only 10% of components, however, the most common finding is an increased response rate in the other components (i.e., punishment contrast). The purpose of the present study was to provide an experimental assessment of the relation between proportion of punishment components and contrast and induction. Four adult humans pressed a lever or pulled a plunger for money on a multiple VI VI schedule arranged with green and red rectangles. The proportion of red rectangles was either 10% or 50%. After responding was stable in both components, every response in the red component was followed by money loss. Across 10 punishment conditions, there was no systematic relation between proportion of punishment components and contrast and induction. With both the 10% and 50% proportions, induction occurred in four punishment conditions and contrast occurred in one. There were, however, systematic effects of condition sequence. For all subjects, the pattern across punishment conditions was induction, then contrast or less induction, then induction. Present results show that proportion of punishment components cannot account for discrepancies found in previous studies, and that effects of punishment on unpunished responses change over time, perhaps because of punisher novelty.

Punishment improves discrimination learning, and programmed instruction is an elaborate form of discrimination training, so the present experiment assessed whether punishment also improves performance on programmed instruction. The cost of such improvement in terms of increased training time and dissatisfaction of subjects also was assessed. Three college students completed a computerized version of Holland and Skinner’s (1961) programmed text. One subject received a two-component multiple schedule within a reversal design, and two subjects received the same two-component multiple-schedule without a return-to-baseline phase. During baseline, subjects received 5¢ for each frame completed, regardless of whether responses were correct or incorrect. Multiple-schedule conditions were either baseline conditions or a loss of 5¢ for each incorrect response (punishment). Punishment improved performance by 10%, increased training time by 15%, and did not affect reported satisfaction. The most likely mechanisms for this improved performance are that punishment increased study time or the salience of stimuli. This experiment showed that punishment can improve performance by one letter grade without subject dissatisfaction or significantly increasing training time.

Electric-shock punishment produces stimulus-generalization gradients with animals. The purpose of the present experiments was to determine whether response-cost punishment produces similar gradients with humans. In Experiment 1, psychophysical procedures were used to generate a set of 10 horizontal lines that differ in length such that adjacent lines were indiscriminable, then reinforcement gradients were obtained with those lines to show that gradients can be produced with those stimuli. In Experiment 2, subjects pressed a lever for points exchangeable for money on a VI schedule in the presence of each stimulus, then points were lost immediately after each response in the presence of Stimulus 6 (the middle value). Response rate decreased in the presence of Stimulus 6, but it had a similar increase in the presence of all other stimuli. Those results suggest that point loss and not line length was the discriminative stimulus for further point loss. To minimize stimulus control exerted by immediate point loss, and thus enhance control by line length, in Experiment 3 points were lost only at the end of the component correlated with Stimulus 6, and in Experiment 4 point loss was arranged on VR and VI schedules. Neither delayed nor intermittent point loss produced gradients: Unpunished response rate was similar in the presence of all line lengths. The present results suggest that the technique of reinforcing responding in the presence of several stimuli during baseline then punishing responding in the presence of only one of those stimuli does not produce with humans and response-cost punishment the gradients obtained with pigeons and electric-shock punishment.

A recent study (Crosbie & Kelly, 1994) showed that brief externally imposed postfeedback delays improved performance in computerized programmed instruction. The present experiment extended that analysis by using shorter sessions, a more powerful single-subject design, and better timing measures, and by assessing maintenance of training effects. College students completed 40 sets of Holland and Skinner’s (1961) programmed text on behavior analysis in a computerized format in a two-component multiple schedule. In the components there was either no postfeedback delay or a 10-s postfeedback delay for each question. On average, delay improved performance by 7% during training, and this advantage was maintained and increased at both posttest (13%) and follow-up (17%). Subjects were satisfied with delay, and session time increased only slightly. Present results show that subjects work faster and more accurately, and have better maintenance when their pace is externally imposed rather than self-selected.

Imposed postfeedback delays promote discrimination training; the present experiments determined whether they also improve performance in programmed instruction. In two experiments, college students completed 45 sets of Holland and Skinner's (1961) programmed text on behavior analysis in a computerized format in a three-component multiple schedule. In Experiment 1, the conditions were (a) no delay between questions, (b) a 10-s delay after each question (noncontingent delay), and (c) a 10-s delay after each question answered incorrectly (contingent delay). Noncontingent delay produced better performance than no delay and contingent delay. To determine whether performance increased in the noncontingent delay condition because subjects studied the material during delay periods, Experiment 2 tested three conditions: (a) no delay between questions, (b) a 10-s delay after each question (noncontingent delay), and (c) a 10-s delay after each question with the screen blank during the delay period. Noncontingent delay produced better performance than no delay, but there was no difference in performance between no delay and noncontingent delay with blank screen. Hence, noncontingent delay improved performance because students used delay periods to study. Furthermore, subjects preferred noncontingent delay to the other conditions, and session time increased only slightly.

Microcomputer laboratories are becoming more common in psychology departments because they provide an alternative instructional medium and a resource to help combat decreasing funding and increasing student:teacher ratios. By using microcomputers to perform the testing, we were able to conduct a Personalized System of Instruction course for 51 students, without the five proctors that would normally be required. Students had low rates of procrastination and positive attitudes toward the course, and none of the students dropped out. This paper describes how the course was organized and the hardware and software employed. Difficulties arising in the course and how they might be overcome are also discussed.

In two experiments a multiple-response repertoire of four free-operant responses was developed with university students as subjects using monetary gain as reinforcement. Following baseline, one of the responses was reduced either by making monetary loss contingent upon it (response cost) or by removing it from the repertoire (response restriction). In Experiment 1 a multielement baseline design was employed in which baseline and restriction or response-cost contingencies alternated semirandomly every 3 minutes. In Experiment 2 a reversal design was employed (i.e., baseline, restriction or response cost, then baseline), and each response required a different amount of effort. Both experiments had the following results: (a) The target response decreased substantially; (b) most nontarget responses increased, and the rest remained near their baseline levels; and (c) no support was found for Dunham's hierarchical, most frequent follower, or greatest temporal similarity rules. For several subjects, the least probable responses during baseline increased most, and the most probable responses increased least. Furthermore, in Experiment 2, responses with the lowest frequency of reinforcement increased most (for all 7 subjects), and those with the greatest frequency of reinforcement increased least (for 5 subjects).

Two experiments with human subjects were performed to investigate the effects of response cost on several unpunished free-operant responses. Using monetary gain on variable-interval schedules as reinforcement, a multiple-response repertoire of button-press responses was developed, then response cost was made contingent on one of these responses. A multielement baseline design was employed in both experiments: During the baseline phase both multielement components were correlated with baseline conditions, then one component was correlated with response cost while baseline conditions continued in the other component. In Experiment 1, a five-response repertoire was developed with no changeover delay (COD), and response cost decreased the target response, increased most nontarget responses, and, for two subjects, one nontarget response decreased. In Experiment 2, a four-response repertoire was developed with a 5-s COD, and similar results were obtained except that no nontarget responses decreased. The present results support my previous findings that punishment affects the whole set of unpunished responses (Crosbie, 1988, 1989, 1990), No support was found, however, for Dunham’s hierarchical rule and most frequent follower propositions (Dunham, 1978; Dunham & Grantmyre, 1982).

In this paper, the Microsoft mouse is described as a general-purpose response device for psychological experiments. Source code is provided for two Turbo Pascal 5.0 units and a program that shows how the mouse can be programmed to record buttonpress, movement, and location responses. There is also a discussion of how the mouse can be used in reaction time studies.

The present study examined the effects of response-cost on unpunished free-operant responses. Three university students made key-press responses on a computer keyboard and won and lost money as reinforcement and punishment, respectively. Only one response was ever reinforced or punished, but all responses were recorded. When response-cost was introduced for the target response, both target and non-target responses decreased. Whereas the target response remained at a low level throughout the punishment phase, most non-target responses eventually increased to their baseline levels. Of the three theoretical predictions assessed, support was found only for the proposition that the response that follows the punished response most frequently during baseline is reduced during the punishment phase.

The principal aim of the present experiments was to assess whether punishment increased or decreased the rate of unpunished behavior (contrast and induction, respectively) for which reinforcement rate was held constant, with physical and nonphysical punishers (electric shock and response cost), pigeon and human subjects, signaled and unsignaled components (multiple and mixed schedules), and the presence or absence of a blackout period between components. Across the three experiments there were 20 punishment conditions. Induction was found in nine of those, less consistent response-rate reduction was found in three, contrast was found in four, and in four there was no change in responding from conditions without punishment. Contrast occurred consistently only with multiple schedules during the first exposure to electric-shock punishment. Induction and no change, however, were found with every combination of the independent variables studied. Four conclusions regarding the interactions between punished and unpunished responding emerged from the present results: (a) Both contrast and induction occurred with the reinforcement rate held constant and a blackout between components, (b) induction was more common than contrast, (c) contrast occurred only in the presence of a stimulus different from that correlated with the punisher, and (d) contrast diminished with prolonged exposure to punishment. None of the current theoretical accounts of punishment contrast can explain the present results.

Two experiments demonstrated stimulus control and generalization of conditioned punishment with humans. In both studies, responses first were reinforced with points exchangeable for money on a variable-interval schedule in the presence of one line length (S(D)). Next, a second line length was introduced, and point loss followed every response in the presence of that line (S(D)p). In the final training condition, points were deducted at session end. Response rate was lower in the presence of the S(D)p despite equal rates of points for money in the presence of both stimuli. In generalization testing for Experiment 1, the two lines were included in a 10-line continuum; S(D)p fell in the middle and the trained SD was at one end. Lines were presented randomly, and point delivery and loss contingencies were as in training but with points available in the presence of all lines. For all subjects, response rates were lowest around S(D)p and increased towards the SD end of the continuum. Because testing included only one or two lines beyond S(D), this pattern did not rule out S(D) generalization. Thus, in Experiment 2, stimuli beyond S(D) were added to generalization tests. Response rates did not decrease as a function of distance from S(D), clarifying the demonstration of punishment generalization.

Although the use of negative reinforcement and punishment is sometimes controversial and unpopular, an experimental analysis of those procedures is crucial if we are to achieve our goal of predicting, controlling, and interpreting the behavior of organisms. Studying only positive consequences of behavior will reveal only half of the picture. Furthermore, negative reinforcement and punishment are particularly powerful, and constantly are present in the physical environment. Indeed, it has been argued that positive reinforcement is really only negative reinforcement in disguise, because all behavior is based on escape and avoidance (Hull, 1943). It is unfortunate that the study of negative reinforcement and punishment is in decline (Baron, 1991), because its analysis is needed to increase the data base of our discipline, and the procedures can be used therapeutically to improve the lives of many people (e.g., by reducing self-injurious behavior). One goal of the present chapter is to encourage more research on this topic with human subjects.

Assessing change with short time-series data is difficult because visual inference is unreliable with such data, and current statistical procedures cannot control Type I error because they underestimate positive autocorrelation. This article describes these problems and shows how they can be solved with a new interrupted time-series analysis procedure (ITSACORR) that uses a more accurate estimate of autocorrelation. Monte Carlo analyses show that, with short series, ITSACORR provides better control of Type I error than all previous procedures and has acceptable power. Clinical examples also show that ITSACORR is easy to use and functions well with real data.

Despite the euphoria surrounding 1992, the recent international expansion of British retail organisations has been oriented mainly towards the US. Such expansion has predominantly taken the form of the acquisition of US retailers, rather than through the establishment of greenfield stores. As a consequence of their US acquisitions, a number of British retailers are now well established across the Atlantic. Some reorientation of the geographical focus of British retail acquisitions abroad, however, may be necessary to reap the expected benefits of the Single European Market. British retail acquisitions in the US are examined in the years between 1984 and 1989 with particular emphasis on acquisition strategy, motivations, performance and the impact of 1992.

Recent studies of caffeine use amongst psychiatric patients have suggested that heavy users experience more anxiety and depression than non-users. The present study aimed to extend the findings of previous research by examining somatic as well as psychological symptomatology associated with habitual caffeine use. In addition, an attempt was made to control for certain potentially confounding variables not adequately controlled in previous research, including possible response bias due to subject knowledge of investigator expectations, subjects' use of substances other than caffeine, and a number of biographic variables. The participants were 173 inpatients drawn from two large psychiatric institutions. Each subject participated in a structured interview during which information was obtained on somatic and psychological health, substance use, and demographic variables. Results failed to confirm previous reports of an association between moderate levels of caffeine consumption and psychological well-being. However, caffeine consumption was significantly correlated with self-reported Frequency of somatic symptoms.

The ffiM PC has become the de facto standard computer for use in psychology laboratories, and Turbo Pascal is a very popular language for this purpose. Unfortunately, no simple millisecond timing program is available in Turbo Pascal. Heathcote (1988) presented a Turbo Pascal program for this purpose, but it is complex and adversely affects the time of day (TOD) clock. Other programs are available only in BASIC and in assembly language, and therefore they cannot be incorporated directly into Turbo Pascal programs (e.g., see Buhrer, Sparrer, & Weitkunat, 1987; Graves & Bradley, 1987, 1988). In the present paper, a program is described that performs millisecond interval timing for the ffiM PC family of computers simply, neatly, efficiently, and accurately, entirely within Turbo Pascal 4.0. Millisecond timing. On the ffiM PC, XT, and AT, as well as compatibles, system timing (e.g., RAM refresh and updating the TOD clock) is performed by the Intel 8253 timer/counter provided on the motherboard. Regardless of the computer (i.e., PC, XT, or AT) and central processor speed (i.e., 4.77, 6, 8, 10, or 20 MHz), the 8253 timer/counter always operates at 1,193,182 Hz, with one count for every cycle. In normal operation, the TOD clock is updated every 65,536 counts of the 8253 timerthat is, every 54.925 msec. One way to obtain millisecond timing is to program the 8253 timer to update the TOD clock every 1,193 counts (i.e., approximately every millisecond) and then count the number of times the TOD clock is updated during the timing interval. However, because the BIOS assumes that a TOD update occurs every 55 msec, the TOD clock will run 55 times too fast (see Biihrer et al., 1987, and Heathcote, 1988, for examples of this type of algorithm). The 8253 is initialized with an integer between 1 and 65,536, then it repeatedly counts down from this number to O. When the counter reaches 0, three things happen automatically: (1) hardware Interrupt 8 updates the TOD clock, (2) software Interrupt 28 (lC in Hexadecimal) is executed, and (3) the counter is reset to the initial number and the countdown continues. In normal operation, Interrupt 1C does nothing useful, but it can be modified

Description d'un programme permettant l'analyse de corelations de series de temps interrompues. Ce programme est en Fortran

When researchers perform several bivariate correlations on a data set, they need to know which of these correlationcoefficients are statistically significant. However, this assessment is not straightforward. The probability estimates thatare output by computerized statistical packages and shown in statistical tables are calculated on the assumption that only one test has been performed, and the probability of making at leastone Type 1error increases withthe number of testsperformed (Larzelere & Mulaik, 1977). This problem is analogous to that posed by performing multiple t tests on a data set. Although several procedures are readily available (and routinely performed) to provideprotection for multiple comparisons of means (seeKeppel, 1982, chap. 8), noprocedure is readily available to protect researchers from unacceptable levels of Type I error when multiple correlation tests are performed. The present paper describes a computerprogram that performssucha protection procedurefor multiple correlation tests (the Bonferroni multistage procedure), and therebymaintains the specified Type I error rate (alpha level) across a set (family) of correlations.

As an adjunct to developing a theory of structural roles, a mathematical model of group or organizational struc­ ture was developed (Oeser & Harary, 1962, 1964; Oeser & O'Brien, 1967). This paper briefly describes the model, the generated quantitative structural indices, and a Pas­ cal program to compute the indices. The Mathematical Model Organizational or group structure is described by three elements: persons (h), positions (p), and tasks (t), and the five relations between these elements. The relations are the informal relations between persons (H-H), the assign­ ment relations between persons and positions (H-P), the power relations between positions (P-P) , the allocation relations between positions and task (P-T), and the prece­ dence relations between tasks (T-T). The structure may be represented schematically as in Figure 1. Each element is represented by a dot, and the relations are represented by directed arrows between the elements. Figure 1 represents a three-person (h., h2 , h.), three-position (p., P2, P3), three-task (t., t 2, t3) group. Each person is as­ signed to one position, and each position is allocated to one task element. Position P2 has legitimate power over positions PI and P3 and this is represented by directed lines from P2 to PI and P3' The arrows between the task ele­ ments indicate that the group is performing a coordina­ tive or assembly-line-type task. Person hi is assigned to position PI and completes the first part of the task, t., which is then passed to person h, at position P2, and so on. The informal relations or communication network be­ tween persons is similarly represented by directed lines between the person elements (h., h2 , h.). The set of five relations may also be represented in matrix form. The matrices for the set of relations described in Figure 1 are presented in Table 1. A matrix entry of 1 indicates the presence of a relation beween two elements, and an entry of 0 indicates the absence of a re­ lation. Matrix entries can also be a decimal value greater than 0 to indicate both the presence and strength of a re­ lation. The organizational or group structure is represented in matrix form because matrix algebra is used to gener­ ate quantitative structural indices.

The need for a compression system to significantly reduce the size of high resolution gray-scale and full-color image (picture) files, which can range from 100 Kbytes to over 3 Mbytes, stimulated an extensive research program that resulted in the development of new image compression systems. These new compression systems, based on well established compression schemes, can reduce image file sizes by a factor of more that 20:1 with only minor detectable image degradation.

accuracy of response were obtained. Respiratory data PET 0 2 and PET COz and heart rate were monitored throughout the ascent. The 'survival time' of the subjects to clinico-physiological end point, while breathing air, was shown to be different for the three different rates of ascent, as was the exposure time at 25,000 feet. The last 192 seconds (four blocks of 4 8 seconds), of the Research: PhD, University of Strathclyde, 1988