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The Caregiver's Feeding Styles Questionnaire (CFSQ) is a well-established measure which uses scores along two dimensions of demandingness and responsiveness to classify low-income parents into one of four feeding style typologies (authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and uninvolved; Hughes, et al., 2005). The measure is widely used by researchers to explore the relationship between feeding style and child weight status but has not been evaluated comprehensively in a review or meta-analysis. The aims of this study were to 1) compare established median cutoffs for responsiveness and demandingness in parent feeding (k = 5; see Hughes et al., 2012) to current median splits along these two dimensions for a larger sample of articles (k = 19) and 2) evaluate the relation between children's BMI, demandingness and responsiveness, and parent feeding style categories. Results indicated that the cutoffs for responsiveness and demandingness initially established based on five studies of low-income families did not differ significantly with the addition of 19 studies. Child BMI z-scores (k = 8) were above average for all four parent feeding style categories and highest for indulgent parents, which was consistent with the literature outlining low-income children at higher risk for obesity and children of indulgent parents being particularly at risk. While heterogeneity of samples should be considered, study results suggested that the CFSQ distribution for responsiveness and demandingness was relatively generalizable across low-income samples, though heterogeneity was higher among caregiver's feeding style categories. Furthermore, the study confirmed that parent feeding styles were related to child weight status in a meaningful way, but all children in these low-income samples, on average, were heavier than their same-aged peers across all parent feeding styles.

To address the rising prevalence of Alzheimer's disease and related dementias, effective interventions that can be widely disseminated are warranted. The Preventing Alzheimer's with Cognitive Training study (PACT) investigates a commercially available computerized cognitive training program targeting improved Useful Field of View Training (UFOVT) performance. The primary goal is to test the effectiveness of UFOVT to reduce incidence of clinically defined mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or dementia with a secondary objective to examine if effects are moderated by plasma β-amyloid level or apolipoprotein E e4 (APOE e4) allele status.This multisite study utilizes a randomized, controlled experimental design with blinded assessors and investigators. Individuals who are 65 years of age and older are recruited from the community. Eligible participants who demonstrate intact cognitive status (Montreal Cognitive Assessment score 25) are randomized and asked to complete 45 sessions of either a commercially available computerized-cognitive training program (UFOVT) or computerized games across 2.5 years. After three years, participants are screened for cognitive decline. For those demonstrating decline or who are part of a random subsample, a comprehensive neuropsychological assessment is completed. Those who perform below a pre-specified level are asked to complete a clinical evaluation, including an MRI, to ascertain clinical diagnosis of normal cognition, MCI, or dementia. Participants are asked to provide blood samples for analyses of Alzheimer's disease related biomarkers.The PACT study addresses the rapidly increasing prevalence of dementia. Computerized cognitive training may provide a non-pharmaceutical option for reducing incidence of MCI or dementia to improve public health.The PACT study is registered at http://Clinicaltrials.govNCT03848312.

Despite the demonstrated benefits of computerized cognitive training for older adults, little is known about the determinants of training behavior. We developed and tested scales to quantify expectations about such training, examine whether expectations predicted training adherence, and explore if training expectations changed from pre- to post-training. Participants (N = 219) were healthy older adults aged 55–96 years (M = 75.36, SD = 9.39), enrolled in four studies investigating Dakim, InSight, or Posit Science Brain Fitness computerized cognitive training programs. Instruments were adapted from existing health behavior scales: Self-Efficacy for Cognitive Training; Outcome Expectations for Cognitive Training; Perceived Susceptibility to Cognitive Decline, Dementia, or Alzheimer’s Disease; and Perceived Severity of Cognitive Decline, Dementia, or Alzheimer’s Disease. Participants completed scales at baseline (N = 219) and post-training (n = 173). Eight composites were derived from factor analyses. Adherence rates were high (M = 81%), but none of the composites predicted training adherence. There was an overall significant effect of time, Wilks’ λ = 0.843, F(8, 114) = 2.65, p = 0.010, partial η2 = 0.157; a significant overall effect of training group, Wilks’ λ = 0.770, F(16, 228) = 1.99, p = 0.015, partial η2 = 0.123; and an overall significant group × time interaction, Wilks’ λ = 0.728, F(16, 226) = 2.44, p = 0.002, partial η2 = 0.147. Significant effects of time were found for expected psychological outcomes and self-efficacy. Post-training, participants more strongly agreed that training was enjoyable and increased their sense of accomplishment. Changes in self-efficacy for cognitive training varied by program, improving for Dakim, and declining for the more challenging Brain Fitness and InSight participants. These newly devised scales may be useful for examining cognitive training behaviors. However, more work is needed to understand factors that influence older adults’ enrollment in and adherence to cognitive training.

Introduction: In 2012, the Center for Disease Control announced children’s blood lead levels (BLLs) above 5 μg/dL should be provided assistance, as no level of lead exposure is safe.Method: A commu...

Inherent in applied developmental sciences is the threat to validity and generalizability due to missing data as a result of participant drop-out. The current paper provides an overview of how attrition should be reported, which tests can examine the potential of bias due to attrition (e.g., t-tests, logistic regression, Little's MCAR test, sensitivity analysis), and how it is best corrected through modern missing data analyses. To amend this discussion of best practices in managing and reporting attrition, an assessment of how developmental sciences currently handle attrition was conducted. Longitudinal studies ( n = 541) published from 2009–2012 in major developmental journals were reviewed for attrition reporting practices and how authors handled missing data based on recommendations in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2010). Results suggest attrition reporting is not following APA recommendations, quality of reporting did not improve since the APA publication, and a low proportion of authors provided sufficient information to convey that data properly met the MAR assumption. An example based on simulated data demonstrates bias that may result from various missing data mechanisms in longitudinal data, the utility of auxiliary variables for the MAR assumption, and the need for viewing missingness along a continuum from MAR to MNAR.

Objective To investigate whether preschoolers are able to identify and categorize foods, and whether their ability to classify food as healthy predicts their hypothetical food choice. Design Structured interviews and body measurements with preschoolers, and teacher reports of classroom performance. Setting Six Head Start centers in a large southeastern region. Participants A total of 235 preschoolers (mean age [SD], 4.73 [0.63] years; 45.4% girls). Intervention(s) Teachers implemented a nutrition education intervention across the 2014–2015 school year in which children were taught to identify and categorize food as sometimes (ie, unhealthy) and anytime (ie, healthy). Main Outcome Measures Preschooler responses to a hypothetical snack naming, classifying, and selection scenario. Analysis Hierarchical regression analyses to examine predictors of child hypothetical food selection. Results While controlling for child characteristics and cognitive functioning, preschoolers who were better at categorizing food as healthy or unhealthy were more likely to say they would choose the healthy food. Low-contrast food pairs in which food had to be classified based on multiple dimensions were outside the cognitive abilities of the preschoolers. Conclusions and Implications Nutrition interventions may be more effective in helping children make healthy food choices if developmental limitations in preschoolers' abilities to categorize food is addressed in their curriculum. Classification of food into evaluative categories is challenging for this age group. Categorizing on multiple dimensions is difficult, and dichotomous labeling of food as good or bad is not always accurate in directing children toward making food choices. Future research could evaluate further preschoolers' developmental potential for food categorization and nutrition decision making and consider factors that influence healthy food choices at both snack and mealtime.

Introduction: The current study examined home and full (i.e., home plus car) smoking ban adop- tion as secondary outcomes to a randomized controlled trial targeting reduced secondhand smoke exposure (SHSe) for children under treatment for cancer. Methods: Families with at least 1 adult smoker who reported SHSe for their children (n = 119) were randomized to control or intervention conditions and followed for 1 year with 5 assessments. Both groups were advised of the negative health outcomes associated with SHSe; the interven- tion group provided more in-depth counseling from baseline to 3 months. Parents reported on household and car smoking behavior, demographic, psychosocial, and medical/treatment-related information. Results: Regardless of group assignment, there was an increase in home (odds ration (OR) = 1.16, p = .074) and full (OR = 1.37, p = .001) smoking ban adoption across time. Families in the interven- tion group were more likely to adopt a full ban by 3 months, but this difference was nonsignificant by 12 months. Married parents (OR = 2.33, p = .006) and those with higher self-efficacy for control- ling children's SHSe (OR = 1.11, p = .023) were more likely to have a home smoking ban; parents who reported smoking fewer cigarettes were more likely to adopt a home (OR = 1.62, p < .0001) or full (OR = 7.32, p = .038) ban. Conclusions: Smoking bans are in-line with Healthy People 2020's tobacco objectives and may be more feasible for parents with medically compromised children for immediate SHSe reduction. Furthermore, interventions targeting full smoking bans may be a more effective for comprehen- sive elimination of SHSe.

Few studies have examined adolescent reporting accuracy for secondhand smoke exposure (SHSe), and never for youth with cancer. SHSe reporting from adolescents being treated for cancer (Mage=14.92 years, SD=1.67) was examined against parent/guardian reports and urine cotinine among 42 adolescent–parent dyads. Number of days in hospital-based lodgings prior to assessment emerged as the strongest predictor of urine cotinine (β=−0.46, p=0.003) and adolescent SHSe reporting significantly predicted urine cotinine (β=0.37, p=0.011) beyond relevant demographic and contextual variables (overall R2=0.40, F(6, 35)=3.90, p=0.004). Findings support adolescents as accurate reporters of discrete SHSe occurrences.

Matching theories about growth, development, and change to appropriate statistical models can present a challenge, which can result in misuse, misinterpretation, and underutilization of different analytical approaches. We discuss the use of derivatives --- the change of a construct with respect to changes in another construct. Derivatives provide a common language linking developmental theory and statistical methods. Conceptualizing change in terms of derivatives allows precise translation of theory into method and highlights commonly overlooked models of change. A wide variety of models can be understood in terms of the level, velocity and acceleration of constructs: the 0th, 1st, and 2nd derivatives, respectively. We introduce the language of derivatives, and highlight the conceptually differing questions that can be addressed in developmental studies. A substantive example is presented to demonstrate how common and unfamiliar statistical methodology can be understood as addressing relations between differing pairs of derivatives.

Objective This randomized controlled trial tested the efficacy of parent-based behavioral counseling for reducing secondhand smoke exposure (SHSe) among children with cancer. It also examined predictors of smoking and SHSe outcomes.

Children with cancer are at greater risk for the negative consequences of secondhand smoke exposure, making the identification of predictors of exposure critical. The current study investigated the impact of parents' psychosocial variables (perceived stress and vulnerability, self-efficacy), as well as health-related and demographic variables, on children’s current exposure levels. Data were from 135 families whose children (M = 8.6 years old) lived with a smoker and were being treated for cancer. Self-efficacy was the consistent significant psychosocial predictor of exposure and the time since a child’s diagnosis was indicative of lower exposure when limiting the sample to only smoking parents ( n = 95). Both predictors of exposure have implications on motivation for behavioral change and may be suggestive of a teachable moment. Interventions may profit from tailoring programs to families based on these predictors of exposure, in particular for tobacco-based interventions for parents of medically compromised children, such as children with cancer.

This study assessed the secondary effects of a parent training intervention program on maternal adjustment, with a focus on understanding ways in which program efficacy differed for participants as a function of whether or not their children had behavior problems. Mothers (N = 99) of toddlers (2-3 years of age) were randomly assigned to receive one of three levels of intervention: (1) informational booklet (2) booklet + face-to-face parent training sessions, or (3) booklet + web-based parent training sessions. Findings indicated that all levels of intervention were associated with increases in maternal well-being for participants with typically developing children. Mothers of toddlers with behavior problems, however, did not benefit from receiving only the booklet but significantly benefitted from receiving either the face-to-face or web-based interventions. Findings are discussed in terms of efficient and efficacious program dissemination and the resulting implications for public policy.

The present study investigated reciprocal relationships between adolescent mothers and their children’s well-being through an analysis of the coupling relationship of mothers’ depressive symptomatology and children’s internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Unlike studies using discrete time analyses, the present study used dynamical systems to model time continuously, which allowed for the study of dynamic, transactional effects between members of each dyad. Findings provided evidence of coupling between maternal depressive symptoms and children’s behaviors. The most robust finding was that as maternal depressive symptoms became more or less severe, children’s behavior problems increased or decreased in a reciprocal manner. Results from this study extended upon theoretical contributions of authors such as Richters (1997) and Granic and Hollenstein (2003), providing empirical validation from a longitudinal study for understanding the ongoing, dynamic relationships between at-risk mothers and their children.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder are the most common forms of psychopathology seen among community youth. This study investigated prospective symptomatology of these disruptive behavior disorders from ages 5 though 14 in an at-risk community-based sample of 170 boys and girls born to adolescent mothers. The prevalence of problems was elevated, with boys and girls generally experiencing equally high prevalence rates. Intraindividual instability was common, and rates of co-occurrence were low. The fluctuating symptomatology in this community-based sample was in contrast to the clinical literature, which indicates higher rates of stability and comorbidity. Findings are discussed in terms of the unique set of results that stemmed from this prospectively assessed at-risk community-based sample of boys and girls.

The present study explored the antecedents and correlates of metaparenting, defined as mental plans for parenting across five subscales: responding, preventing, monitoring, mentoring, and modeling. Cross sectional data on a diverse sample of 74 fathers were drawn from a larger longitudinal project that interviewed men four times over the first two years of their children’s lives. A structural equation model revealed that fathers’ reports of positive parenting role models and intelligence were found to be related to working models of parenting as measured by the five components of metaparenting. Most importantly, higher levels of metaparenting were associated with authoritative parenting and less abuse potential. Results provided preliminary evidence for the importance of a mental model of parenting among fathers.

Objective. Pediatric lead screener questions have previously been evaluated for their ability to identify children whose blood lead levels (BLLs) are greater than 10 µg/dL. Based on recent policy changes stressing that there is no safe BLL for children, the current study reevaluates the screener questions for their ability to identify children with BLLs less than 2 µg/dL and the validity of the questions in positively identifying those at greater risk for exposure. Method. A total of 202 parents of children enrolled in Head Start programs were administered the pediatric lead screener, questions to validate the screener questions, and children’s BLLs were collected in Summer 2013. Pediatric screener questions were validated against children’s BLL and the more comprehensive questions on lead risk. Results. In predicting BLL greater than 2 µg/dL, the pediatrician screener tool had a sensitivity of 26.3% and specificity of 72.2%. Each of the screener questions had low sensitivities for identifying children with BLLs above 2 µg/dL. The screener questions did not demonstrate adequate validity when compared against a more comprehensive battery of lead exposure risk indicators. The validation questions improved sensitivity to detect children with BLL >2 µg/dL and reduced the number of false positives. Conclusion. The pediatrician screener questions in their current format are not a useful primary prevention tool in identifying children at greater risk for lead exposure and in need of secondary prevention through the receipt of a blood lead test. A revision to the protocol for identifying children at risk could result in better primary and secondary prevention efforts.

In this paper, we propose that basic and applied research in the areas of intelligence, education, and cognition can be significantly advanced by a focus on executive functioning (EF). We present our perspective on the nature of EF, show its centrality in understanding applied cognition, and develop a research agenda that would advance the scope of theories about EF and their classroom applications. This research agenda calls for (1) basic, interdisciplinary research on the measurement of EF and how these measures relate to its biological-genetic substrates, (2) applied research that determines the best methods for supporting EF in classroom settings and home environments, and (3) theoretical research that re-examines the role that EF might play in the emergence of human intelligence. Advances in our understanding of EF have the potential to inform the assessment, diagnosis, remediation, and prevention of learning difficulties and developmental delays in ways that are potentially applicable across multiple domains and contexts.

Background: Indoor environmental contaminants (ECs) are prevalent and have dire consequences to children’s development, especially for children under six. To optimize the efficacy of programs aiming to prevent exposure to ECs, it is necessary to investigate parental factors that influence behavioral change. The current study presents a measure developed to assess parental self-efficacy for preventing children from being exposed to ECs, the Parental Self-efficacy for Contaminant Exposure Prevention (PS-CEP). Method: The PS-CEP was administered to parents of children under six drawn from a low-income preschool (n=206) and an on-line polling website (n=377). An exploratory factor analysis was conducted, convergent and discriminant validity was assessed, and the relation of the measure to demographic and parenting characteristics were examined. Results: Based on model fit indices, a four-factor model was the best fit. Factors represented confidence in prevention using cleaning, medical care, children’s physical environment, and meal time. All factors of the PS-CEP demonstrated good reliability and construct validity and were related to more optimal parenting characteristics. Conclusion: A measure of this type will allow interventions to be tailored based on parents’ self-efficacy to more appropriately support them in taking steps to create healthier environments for their children.

Introduction Adolescents with cancer are susceptible to the health consequences associated with secondhand smoke exposure (SHSE) and tobacco use. The present study compared tobacco use, exposure, and risk factors between patients and population peers. Method Self-reported data on tobacco use, SHSE, and tobacco-related risk factors were drawn from a pediatric oncology hospital and the National Youth Tobacco Survey. Conditional logistic regression was used to estimate odds ratios for patients and control subjects. Results Patients were as likely to have tried tobacco and report home SHSE as control subjects. Patients were more likely to report car SHSE, less likely to report that SHSE is harmful, and less likely to report home smoking bans. Discussion Patients experienced SHSE, tobacco use, and tobacco-related risk factors at rates greater than or equal to control subjects. These results provide support for consideration of intervention targets, health status, and delivery mechanisms, particularly by health care providers, when developing comprehensive tobacco control strategies.

Youth may be particularly attuned to social evaluation during the teen years with implications for physical and mental health. Negative attitudes and stereotypes constitute an important type of social evaluative threat. Pregnant and parenting teens not only encounter challenges associated with their early transition to parenthood, but also are confronted with unfavourable attitudes of others. A university sample of 255 men and women responded to surveys targeting their feelings and beliefs about pregnant teens, teen mothers and teen fathers. Teen mothers were generally perceived more positively than pregnant teens who were perceived more positively compared to teen fathers. Social evaluations were generally unrelated to respondents' sex or race, but respondents who had contact with a friend or family member who had experienced a teen pregnancy were selectively more positive, as were freshmen compared to seniors. Risks attributed to early childbearing may be exacerbated by negative social evaluations.

Many applied statistical problems address how the change in one variable is related to change in another variable. While the change of one variable with respect to another is the very definition of a derivative, the language of derivatives is not commonplace among social scientists. In this chapter we present derivatives as a language framework that is ideal for describing changes in variables, particularly changes with respect to time. This language can be used to understand many common models as relationships between derivatives rather than as disparate entities. Derivatives also can be used to provide statisticians and substantive researchers a common language that can be used to create better matches between models and theory. Moreover, this chapter will present derivatives as a language that has the potential to change the kinds of questions asked from variables measured repeatedly over time. Three differential equation models will be introduced for addressing questions related to the shortterm fluctuation often described as intraindividual variability.