Search

This paper examines German and foreign bank factors that can explain cross-border central bank liquidity flows between Germany and the rest of the euro area. Using data from the German component of Eurosystem's real-time gross settlement system TARGET2 and BankFocus for the period between 2009 and 2021, we provide empirical evidence that only few balance sheet items and profit and loss accounts affect flows with Germany. We control for bilateral bank-specific relationships and time-varying macroeconomic country effects in our regressions. In general, German bank factors seem to be more important than characteristics of foreign banks. A German bank that exhibits relatively high claims against a central bank seems to attract less additional central bank liquidity from abroad than a German bank with fewer existing central bank claims. However, higher overall liquidity of a German credit institution corresponds to additional net inflows. Foreign bank factors only matter for central bank payments and intragroup payments. We also document heterogeneities across different types of transactions which influence the German TARGET2 balance. While customer payments, interbank payments and central bank payments have increased net flows to Germany in sum, intragroup payments and ancillary systems' transactions have led to net outflows.

Applying a BVAR model, the present paper first identifies the possible drivers of Germany's TARGET claims. In this context, in terms of potential causes, a distinction is made between a rise in the global risk assessment, tensions within the euro area, and European monetary policy. It becomes evident that the TARGET flows between 2015 and 2017 can be ascribed in large part to monetary policy and to a minor extent to the risk assessment within the euro area. At the peak of the European debt crisis between 2010 and mid-2012, the TARGET flows were affected by uncertainty in the euro area as a dominant factor, although global factors also played a key role according to the model. The BVAR model we use opens up the possibility of studying the causes of current fluctuations in Germany's TARGET claims.

The paper analyses the transmission of global financial shocks to individual member states of the European Monetary Union (EMU), in which monetary policy is delegated to the ECB and financial markets are fully integrated. Using a panel VAR model, we show that the asymmetric effects of global shocks on member states are partly offset by the uniform access of commercial banks to the Eurosystem's open market operations in conjunction with the redistribution of liquidity via the TARGET mechanism. However, an appropriate policy mix of sound public finances, solid financial regulation and targeted macroprudential measures is necessary in order to safeguard macroeconomic sustainability without needing to manage capital flows.

[Conclusion] It is being increasingly held in the literature that, in a globalizing world, flexible exchange rates are no longer enough to insulate an economy against external shocks. Our empirical results corroborate the observation that, in the past few years, global factors have had a crucial impact on domestic financial market prices and that it is becoming increasingly difficult for EMEs to find shelter. Global liquidity, in particular, has been the dominant element of the evolution of financial markets in the emerging economies. What this means with respect to possible policy recommendations to EMEs on how they can best protect themselves from the adverse impact of volatile international capital flows is that neither flexible nor fixed exchange rates are capable of sheltering domestic financial markets from foreign shocks and of stabilizing the valuation of domestic financial instruments. What appear more promising are efforts to exploit the advantages of financial integration while at the same time taking precautions to ensure that external shocks can be absorbed by a sound financial sector with high standards of safety. In this connection, too, a stable macroeconomic environment can also help prevent temporary disruptions from becoming a full-blown hazard to macroeconomic stability.

Foreign exchange rates, asset prices and capital movements are expected to be closely related to each other as international capital markets become more and more integrated. This paper provides new empirical evidence from an index of exchange-rate adjusted cross-country asset price ratios, which may be interpreted as a real effective financial exchange rate. The integrated stock-flow approach reveals that a county's real effective financial exchange rate is co-integrated with international investors' net foreign holding of its assets. The associated error correction equations have useful interpretations against the backdrop of uncovered return parity and investor portfolio rebalancing behavior.

This Kiel Policy Brief demonstrates the calculation of a new stock market index informing about the price competitiveness of a country's assets vis-à-vis its foreign competitors. In line with the portfolio balance approach we empirically identify net foreign holdings of a country's assets as the long-run driver of the index dynamics. Both, the index and its fundamental value are discussed for a number of important economies shading new light on the relative assessment of financial assets on international capital markets.

Foreign exchange rates and capital movements are expected to be closely related to each other as international capital markets become more and more integrated. To account for this fact we construct an index of real effective exchange rates as a weighted average of cross-country asset price ratios. The empirical analysis reveals that a country's real financial effective exchange rate is cointegrated with net foreign holdings of its assets. Comparing the empirical performance of the new index with a standard effective exchange rate deflated by goods prices we find that only the former exhibits an influence on the international flow of capital.

The paper evaluates current account dynamics in countries with different exchange rate regimes within the EU. In this, the empirical analysis explicitly differentiates between countries with a flexible and a fixed exchange rate regime and members of a monetary union. In addition, we model the adjustment process of external disequilibria by referring to the flexibility of exchange rates and interest rates. The sample covers annual data for 27 EU countries from 1994 to 2011. The estimation is based on a simple autoregressive model and comes to the conclusion that current account adjustment is significantly hampered in countries that are members of a monetary union. This holds particularly in comparison with floating exchange rate regimes owing to lower exchange rate flexibility. However, the persistence of current account balances in member countries of a monetary union is also more pronounced than in fixed-rate regimes due to less flexible interest rates as a result of the single monetary policy.

This paper aims to identify the determinants of portfolio restructuring in EMU member states since the introduction of the euro and especially during the financial turbulence of the past years. We find that, besides exchange rate volatility and traditional indicators of information and transaction costs, the perception of sovereign risk has become more important as a determinant of portfolio allocation. The shares of financial corporations have been affected disproportionately by this development. At the same time, banks substantially reduced their international investment, possibly the result of a deleveraging process.

In this paper an index of financial competitiveness is calculated that corresponds to the market-to-book ratio of inward FDI stocks. For a panel of five advanced economies from 1980 to 2006 it is shown that price competitiveness, stable inflation rates and registered patents have a positive impact on the index. Institutional factors like EMU membership or Anglo-Saxon legislation also play a role. Financial competitiveness in turn encourages FDI inflows whereas it benefits fixed investment relative to M&A. There is also some evidence that an innovative environment accelerates investment decisions by promoting competition among investors.

The current accounts of most EU member states in central and eastern Europe have been showing growing deficits in recent years. According to panel estimates the deficits can be attributed primarily to factors characteristic for the stage of development, ie the relative income level and high capital building. The positive impact of a closing income gap, however, is largely compensated by real appreciation. The net effect of government budget deficits is rather small, since they are mostly financed by private saving. Further integration of the financial sector is likely to improve the current accounts. Although the current account positions do not require fundamental policy reversals, there are clear risks of exchange rate adjustments that should be reduced before entering the euro area.

Chapter 1 provides an overview and assessment of the price competitiveness and export performance of the euro area and the larger euro area countries, as well as an evaluation of how standard equations have been able to explain actual export developments. Chapter 2 carries out a constant market share analysis for the euro area and thereby sheds light on the reasons for movements in aggregate export market shares by looking at the sectoral and geographical composition of euro area exports. Chapter 3 looks at the evolution of the technological competitiveness of the euro area and major competitors – proxied by patenting activity and R&D expenditure – and analyses some structural indicators of competitiveness using survey data. Chapter 4 then looks at the impact of FDI on competitiveness and export performance. Finally, Chapter 5 summarises the main findings of the report, but also critically evaluates their importance and implications.

Given the large trade and current account deficits in some of the new EU member states the development of their external economic situation plays a role in assessing their aptitude to enter the European Monetary Union. The empirical analysis with aggregated data indicates that in the eight central and east European EU member states FDI and trade are complementary. This result is confirmed by an FDI enhanced gravity model which makes use of sectoral data provided by the Bundesbank's micro database direct investment (MIDI). The net effect of FDI on the trade balance is ambiguous, but FDI in high-tech industries clearly stimulates exports more than imports. Technological spill-over and the conglomeration of human capital seem to be important factors for the export performance. Against this background the prospects for the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovenia and the Slovak Republic look more favourable compared to the Baltic states.

A test of speculative efficiency on the foreign exchange markets of Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary and the Slovak republic was unable to identify a cointegration relationship between forward and spot rates against the euro for the period between 1999 and mid-2002. Econometric studies confirm the existence of a time-variable exchange rate premium in all of the above countries. However, information and transaction costs also appear to be responsible for the observed deviations from speculative efficiency. The segmentation of the foreign exchange markets is likely to hamper the coordination of national monetary and foreign exchange policies within ERM II. In addition, this segmentation increases uncertainty in setting the central rate against the euro. Im Rahmen eines Tests der spekulativen Effizienz auf den Devisenmärkten Polens, der Tschechischen Repubik, Ungarns und der Slowakei kann für den Beobachtungszeitraum von 1999 bis Mitte 2002 keine Kointegrationsbeziehung zwischen Termin- und Kassakursen gegenüber dem Euro nachgewiesen werden. Ökonometrische Untersuchungen bestätigen die Existenz einer zeitvariablen Wechselkursprämie in allen genannten Ländern. Darüber hinaus scheinen aber auch Informations- und Transaktionskosten verantwortlich zu sein für die beobachteten Abweichungen von der spekulativen Effizienz. Die Segmentierung der Devisenmärkte dürfte die Koordinierung der nationalen Geld- und Währungspolitiken innerhalb des WKM II erschweren. Zusätzlich erhöht sie die Unsicherheit bei der Festlegung des Leitkurses gegenüber dem Euro.

Based on the concept of covered interest parity it is shown that the money markets in Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and the Slovak Republic meanwhile display a high degree of international integration with the euro area. Integration has strengthened continuously in the review period of 1999 to mid 2002. The segmentation that could still be observed stems from both restrictions on the short-term movement of capital and the limited development of the financial sectors in the four accession countries. While almost all capital controls have since been removed and will no longer play a role after accession to the EU, the implementation and transmission of the single monetary policy within the Eurosystem will possibly be impeded, if the financial sectors in CEE are then still underdeveloped. Basierend auf dem Konzept der gedeckten Zinsparität wird gezeigt, dass die Geldmärkte in Polen, der Tschechischen Republik, Ungarn und der Slowakei inzwischen einen hohen Grad an internationaler Integration mit dem Euro-Raum aufweisen. Die Integration hat sich im Untersuchungszeitraum von 1999 bis Mitte 2002 kontinuierlich verstärkt. Für die noch zu beobachtende Segmentierung sind sowohl Beschränkungen des kurzfristigen Kapitalverkehrs als auch die geringe Entwicklung der Finanzsektoren in den Beitrittsländern verantwortlich. Während Kapitalverkehrskontrollen inzwischen fast vollständig abgebaut sind und nach einem EU-Beitritt keine Rolle mehr spielen werden, könnte innerhalb des Eurosystems die Implementierung und Transmission der gemeinsamen Geldpolitik beeinträchtigt werden, wenn die Finanzsektoren in Mittel- und Osteuropa noch unterentwickelt sind.

Basierend auf dem Konzept der gedeckten Zinsparität wird gezeigt, dass die Geldmärkte in Polen, der Tschechischen Republik, Ungarn und der Slowakei inzwischen einen hohen Grad an internationaler Integration mit dem Euro-Raum aufweisen. Die Integration hat sich im Untersuchungszeitraum von 1999 bis Mitte 2002 kontinuierlich verstärkt. Für die noch zu beobachtende Segmentierung sind sowohl Beschränkungen des kurzfristigen Kapitalverkehrs als auch die geringe Entwicklung der Finanzsektoren in den Beitrittsländern verantwortlich. Während Kapitalverkehrskontrollen inzwischen fast vollständig abgebaut sind und nach einem EU-Beitritt keine Rolle mehr spielen werden, könnte innerhalb des Eurosystems die Implementierung und Transmission der gemeinsamen Geldpolitik beeinträchtigt werden, wenn die Finanzsektoren in Mittel- und Osteuropa noch unterentwickelt sind. Based on the concept of covered interest parity it is shown that the money markets in Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and the Slovak Republic meanwhile display a high degree of international integration with the euro area. Integration has strengthened continuously in the review period of 1999 to mid 2002. The segmentation that could still be observed stems from both restrictions on the short-term movement of capital and the limited development of the financial sectors in the four accession countries. While almost all capital controls have since been removed and will no longer play a role after accession to the EU, the implementation and transmission of the single monetary policy within the Eurosystem will possibly be impeded, if the financial sectors in CEE are then still underdeveloped.

Im Rahmen eines Tests der spekulativen Effizienz auf den Devisenmärkten Polens, der Tschechischen Repubik, Ungarns und der Slowakei kann für den Beobachtungszeitraum von 1999 bis Mitte 2002 keine Kointegrationsbeziehung zwischen Termin- und Kassakursen gegenüber dem Euro nachgewiesen werden. Ökonometrische Untersuchungen bestätigen die Existenz einer zeitvariablen Wechselkursprämie in allen genannten Ländern. Darüber hinaus scheinen aber auch Informations- und Transaktionskosten verantwortlich zu sein für die beobachteten Abweichungen von der spekulativen Effizienz. Die Segmentierung der Devisenmärkte dürfte die Koordinierung der nationalen Geld- und Währungspolitiken innerhalb des WKM II erschweren. Zusätzlich erhöht sie die Unsicherheit bei der Festlegung des Leitkurses gegenüber dem Euro.

Der vorliegende Diskussionsbeitrag entstand im Rahmen eines Forschungsprojektes über die monetäre Integration von fünf mittel- und osteuropäischen EU-Beitrittskandidaten (Estland, Polen, Slowenien, Tschechische Republik und Ungarn). Während die vorangegangenen Kapitel des Projekts die Vor- und Nachteile verschiedener Wechselkursregime für die Übergangsphase vor einer Teilnahme an der Europäischen Währungsunion herausarbeiteten, befaßt sich der vorliegende Beitrag mit dem Timing und Sequencing der monetären Integration. Er kommt zu dem Schluß, daß eine Wechselkurskooperation erst nach einer kurzen Phase völlig flexibler Wechselkurse empfehlenswert ist. Mit dem Beginn ihrer EU-Mitgliedschaft sollten die fünf Länder auch dem EWS II beitreten, untereinander allerdings engere Bandbreiten einhalten als gegenüber dem Euro. Eine Mitgliedschaft in der Europäischen Währungsunion wird gemäß den Bestimmungen des EG-Vertrags frühestens nach zweijähriger Bewährung im Europäischen Wechselkursmechanismus möglich sein, also voraussichtlich nicht vor 2005. This paper is part of a research project on monetary integration of five EU-accession candidates (Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Poland and Slovenia). While the preceding chapters of the project have focused on the pros and cons of different exchange rate regimes for the transition phase before CEE countries may become member of the European Monetary Union, this paper deals with the Timing and Sequencing of monetary integration. It comes to the conclusion that an exchange rate co-operation should only start after a short period of fully flexible exchange rates and that the snake of five (or four) CEE-currencies should enter the EMS-tunnel at the same time as EUmembership is achieved. According to the rules of the EC-Treaty an accession to the Euro-area will only be possible after two years of successful EMS-membership, i.e. not before 2005.

Der vorliegende Diskussionsbeitrag entstand im Rahmen eines Forschungsprojektes über die monetäre Integration von fünf mittel- und osteuropäischen EU-Beitrittskandidaten (Polen, Tschechische Republik, Ungarn, Slowenien und Estland). Das hier vorgestellte Kapitel geht auf die währungspolitischen Interdependenzen in der Region ein und zieht daraus Schlüsse für ein geeignetes Wechselkurssystem der genannten Länder. Dabei erweisen sich die Wechselkurselastizitäten des Sozialproduktes, die Korrelation exogener Schocks und die Priorität monetärer bzw. realer Ziele als die entscheidenden Variablen. In der gegenwärtigen Situation überwiegen die Nachteile fester Wechselkurse, die aus einer verminderten Reaktionsfähigkeit auf exogene Schocks beruhen, die Vorteile einer verringerten Wechselkursvolatilität. Der intensive Wettbewerb innerhalb Mittel- und Osteuropas (MOE) um Exporte in die EU und eine wachsende Bedeutung stabiler Wechselkurse gegenüber dem Euro könnten in der Zukunft allerdings einen gemeinsamen Übergang zu festen Wechselkursen sinnvoll erscheinen lassen. Gleichwohl bleibt ein generelles Fixkursregime einer währungspolitischen Koordination, etwa in Gestalt einer Schlange im Tunnel, in jedem Fall unterlegen. This paper is part of a research project on monetary integration of five EU-accession candidates (Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovenia and Estonia). The chapter presented here focuses on monetary policy interdependencies in the region and draws some conclusions on the adequate exchange rate regimes in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE). The exchange rate elasticities of output, the correlation of exogenous shocks and the priority of monetary or real targets turn out to be the decisive variables. At the present, the social costs of fixed exchange rates due to a reduced absorption of exogenous shocks outweigh the possible gains, which result from reduced exchange rate volatility. However, the strong competition of the selected countries for exports in the EU and a rising importance of stable exchange rates vis-à-vis the Euro may give an argument for a common switch to fixed exchange rates in the future. Nevertheless, it is argued that fixed exchange rates will always be inferior to monetary coordination in CEE, e.g. in the form of a snake in the tunnel.

Der vorliegende Diskussionsbeitrag entstand im Rahmen eines Forschungsprojektes über die monetäre Integration von fünf mittel- und osteuropäischen EU-Beitrittskandidaten (Polen, Tschechische Republik, Ungarn, Slowenien und Estland). Das hier vorgestellte Kapitel geht auf die währungspolitischen Interdependenzen in der Region ein und zieht daraus Schlüsse für ein geeignetes Wechselkurssystem der genannten Länder. Dabei erweisen sich die Wechselkurselastizitäten des Sozialproduktes, die Korrelation exogener Schocks und die Priorität monetärer bzw. realer Ziele als die entscheidenden Variablen. In der gegenwärtigen Situation überwiegen die Nachteile fester Wechselkurse, die aus einer verminderten Reaktionsfähigkeit auf exogene Schocks beruhen, die Vorteile einer verringerten Wechselkursvolatilität. Der intensive Wettbewerb innerhalb Mittel- und Osteuropas (MOE) um Exporte in die EU und eine wachsende Bedeutung stabiler Wechselkurse gegenüber dem Euro könnten in der Zukunft allerdings einen gemeinsamen Übergang zu festen Wechselkursen sinnvoll erscheinen lassen. Gleichwohl bleibt ein generelles Fixkursregime einer währungspolitischen Koordination, etwa in Gestalt einer Schlange im Tunnel, in jedem Fall unterlegen.