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This paper presents questions within a consideration of the nature of doctoral viva examinations from an international viewpoint. We argue that preparation for the viva should begin early - certainly not just immediately after the thesis submission. Key viva questions can be used in a preparatory process with supervisors over time to develop candidates' thesis thinking and research capability. The paper gives guidance and advice for "candidates" (and for "supervisors" to help candidates) about how to prepare practically for the viva. More importantly this should help them to enter the mindset of examiners. This enables candidates to enter fully into discussion of a thesis confidently and enthusiastically, to share their research thinking in a focussed manner which takes broad issues into account. In a detailed Appendix, we share a repertoire of 60 examples of generic viva questions which are commonly asked in many international contexts, together with guidance about answers in brackets. Using these iteratively with supervisor help, candidates are encouraged to generate their own specific questions as part of a formative research process. Viva preparation guided by key questions can begin early as an inherent part of the research-and-writing process: questions are first "for" candidates, then developed "with" candidates, and then finally in a viva put "to" candidates. The questions are a framework for supervisors, too, who are often examiners themselves.

This paper employs the innovative method of Elicited Metaphor Analysis to present original research in Malaysia into students' metaphors for 'language'. We summarize reasons why language and first/ second language learning are centrally important in education, and show patterned features of language metaphors in proverbs and in teacher talk about literacy. These may be one strand of student socialization into language-literacy conceptions. We then report our study of 408 university students in Malaysia who gave 977 metaphors for 'language'. Using a socio-cultural extension of conceptual metaphor theory from cognitive linguistics, we analyse these data into thematic clusters and metaphor networks of meanings. In student voices, this presents a surprisingly rich picture of language and shows evidence of linguistic meta-functions: student metaphors for language can be seen not only cognitively with affective and socio-cultural meta-functions, but also with moral-spiritual and aesthetic functions. These meta-functions accord with some educational theories. To show wider insider metaphor perspectives we cite our research with 'teacher' and 'learning' metaphors in Malaysia, and 'language' findings from China, Iran, Lebanon and the UK. The metaphor meanings and meta-functions broaden our conception of language as a medium of learning with strong implications for the teaching of languages and literacy.

This paper investigated a research area worthy of greater attention: foreign language classroom anxiety (hereafter FLCA) and enjoyment (hereafter FLE) of older adults learning English as a foreign language in Chinese Universities of the Third Age. Understanding the largely overlooked emotional involvement of older language learners contributes to sustaining their motivation in lifelong learning for more remarkable personal growth and successes. Based on the survey of 587 Chinese older learners of English between the age of 50 and 80, paired sample t-test showed that more FLE was reported than FLCA. The results of Welch's ANOVA suggested that those who were better educated had less FLCA and those who believed themselves healthier had more FLE. The language performance evaluation (i.e. relative standing in class and English mastery) affects both FLE and FLCA. Further interviews with 34 older participants revealed three major sources of FLE, including the language use in life situations, the favorable attitude toward FL learning in the cognitive, aesthetic cultural and pragmatic aspects and the social interactions in the U3As. FLCA occurs when the language performance is perceived as dissatisfying and when aspects of mental health (e.g. worsening memory) impede effective learning. Although FLCA and FLE had only a very weak correlation, Chinese older adult learners commented on a shared belief that anxiety usually precedes and subsequently enhances enjoyment in learning, indicating a sign of emotional resilience later in life. This paper demonstrates a need for understanding the emotions in language learning across life stages and socio-cultural contexts.

This study focuses on the experiences and feelings of pre-school children in two different regions about English learning to identify attitudinal differences in these attitudes between remote and urban areas. The research adopted the elicited metaphor analysis (EMA) to investigate the interest and preferences for English learning of 160 Chinese children, ages 4 to 6 (80 males and 80 females), in Shanghai (a major metropolitan city) and Mudanjiang (a small border city in north eastern China). The results showed that children in a remote area had a superior interest and attitude towards English learning than did their peers in an urban area. They gained perception by interacting with their surroundings and making full use of their senses and materials nearby. Moreover, children's English learning is influenced by Chinese culture and reflects local cultural characteristics. This study suggests that children should be exposed to the English language environment to obtain the core experiences for future English learning, even though the environment may not be suitable. The findings relate directly to teacher training and textbook compilation.

Internationalising higher education (HE) shows tensions between recruiting international students as a means of securing income and meeting their particular educational needs towards practices of caring for their social, psychological, intercultural and educational well-being. This paper briefly outlines the extent of current HE internationalisation and collaboration networks worldwide. It presents an argument, evidenced with research data, for the need to include cultures of learning in policies and practises to sustain internationalisation in HE. Staff (academic, administrative and technical) and students (home and international) need to appreciate and practise a variety of cultural approaches and intercultural communication strategies to advance teaching and learning. Staff need to have this intercultural awareness for their professional development and to consider further how the curriculum and learning environments could provide more opportunities for (inter)national students to be productively engaged in academic learning in intercultural contexts and embrace more internationalised content and learning processes. Suggestions for such developments are proposed.

Few studies investigate ELT with young learners in China, although conservative estimates suggest 60-million primary school children are studying English; even fewer studies investigate Chinese young learners' L2 motivation. This article reports on a study of English learning motivation among Chinese primary school pupils through analysing elicited metaphors. This innovative method can yield insights into young learners' thinking and feelings which a standard interview method may not reveal. One hundred and twenty-eight pupils aged 7 and 9 years old (Y1 and Y3, respectively) from four different Chinese primary schools who had studied English for six months gave 362 elicited metaphors with reasoning entailments. Analysis shows these learners are highly positive about learning English; they feel happiness and excitement; they are influenced by interactive methods and learning through play; and believe they attain useful and purposeful outcomes. Some Y3 students indicated their dynamic awareness of English learning difficulties, but believed they would still achieve desired outcomes.

This paper investigated a research area worthy of greater attention: foreign language classroom anxiety (hereafter FLCA) and enjoyment (hereafter FLE) of older adults learning English as a foreign language in Chinese Universities of the Third Age. Understanding the largely overlooked emotional involvement of older language learners contributes to sustaining their motivation in lifelong learning for more remarkable personal growth and successes. Based on the survey of 587 Chinese older learners of English between the age of 50 and 80, paired sample t-test showed that more FLE was reported than FLCA. The results of Welch's ANOVA suggested that those who were better educated had less FLCA and those who believed themselves healthier had more FLE. The language performance evaluation (i.e. relative standing in class and English mastery) affects both FLE and FLCA. Further interviews with 34 older participants revealed three major sources of FLE, including the language use in life situations, the favorable attitude toward FL learning in the cognitive, aesthetic cultural and pragmatic aspects and the social interactions in the U3As. FLCA occurs when the language performance is perceived as dissatisfying and when aspects of mental health (e.g. worsening memory) impede effective learning. Although FLCA and FLE had only a very weak correlation, Chinese older adult learners commented on a shared belief that anxiety usually precedes and subsequently enhances enjoyment in learning, indicating a sign of emotional resilience later in life. This paper demonstrates a need for understanding the emotions in language learning across life stages and socio-cultural contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cultural influences on anatomy teaching and learning have been investigated by application of a questionnaire to medical students in British and Chinese Medical Schools. Results from the responses from students of the two countries were analyzed. Both groups found it easier to understand anatomy in a clinical context, and in both countries, student learning was driven by assessment. Curriculum design differences may have contributed to the British view wherein students were less likely to feel time pressure and enjoyed studying anatomy more than their Chinese counterparts. Different teaching approaches resulted in British students being more likely to recite definitions to learn, and the Chinese students found learning from cross-sectional images easy. Cultural differences may account for the observation that British students were more inclined to ask questions in class, and the preference of Chinese students to study in small groups. The findings give evidence to show how "cultures of learning" influence students' approaches and indicate the importance of cultural influences as factors amongst international and home learner groups. (Contains 3 tables and 2 figures.)

This paper elaborates some aspects of narrative learning--defined here as learning to tell stories and learning from, about and through narratives--in the context of primary-age pupils who use English as an Additional Language (EAL). The paper introduces some principles to support their language development in classroom interaction. We argue that linguistically orientated research on metacognitive strategy development is not necessarily readily applied to EAL learners. After presenting a background on narrative, narrative development and social aspects of telling stories, we introduce an approach to narrative development which encourages a cycle telling and retelling of stories which provides EAL learners with layered opportunities for developing the metacognitive features of planning, remembering, understanding and reflecting on storytelling. This is enabled through the use of written "keywords", which are used in conjunction with "story maps" (which outline the narrative structure and content) together with classroom photos. While the focus of the paper is on EAL learners, the visual approach described here can be used with narrative (or factual information) for many other young children and has been used by speech and language therapists to develop specific aspects of language for speech and language impaired children. (Contains 4 figures.)