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The Neotropical deer genus Mazama is characterized by homoplastic morphological characters, a high karyotypic diversity, and a polyphyletic condition. The species of the genus have been recovered into two multigeneric lineages, the subtribes Odocoileina and Blastocerina, of the tribe Odocoileini (New World deer) in the family Cervidae. Within the Blastocerina, gray brockets include two non-sister species, Subulo gouazoubira, occurring south of the Amazon region, and Passalites nemorivagus, occurring in the Guianas and in the Amazon region. We clarify the taxonomic status and phylogenetic position of Mazama americana citus Osgood, 1912 (referred to as either S. gouazoubira or P. nemorivagus by other authors). We collected a topotype of M. a. citus from the eastern shore of Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela, characterize it morphologically and cytogenetically (conventional banding and fluorescence in situ hybridization), and carry out a phylogenetic analysis of its whole mitogenome and Cytb alongside two additional specimens of M. a. citus from northwestern Venezuela. Our analyses reveal the topotype to be a large gray brocket with a cinnamon band above the eyes and 2n = 61 and FN = 70 karyotype. Using cattle whole chromosome painting and bacterial artificial chromosome X probes, we determined its karyotype to differ in at least 10 rearrangements from that of S. gouazoubira. Bayesian inference recovers M. a. citus within the Blastocerina subtribe, separated phylogenetically from other gray brockets (100% branch value), revealing the Osgood’s gray brocket to be a valid species that should be assigned to a new genus. We propose the generic name Bisbalus, with Bisbalus citus (Osgood, 1912) as the type species.

We studied the taxonomy and biogeography of Mazama bricenii, a brocket deer classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN, drawing on qualitative and quantitative morphology and sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome-b gene. We used Ecological Niche Modeling (ENM) to evaluate the hypothesis that M. bricenii of the Venezuelan Cordillera de Mérida (CM) might have become isolated from populations of its putative sister species, Mazama rufina, in the Colombian Cordillera Oriental (CO). This hypothesis assumes that warm, dry climatic conditions in the Táchira Depression were unsuitable for the species. Our analyses did not reveal morphological differences between specimens geographically attributable to M. bricenii and M. rufina, and phylogenetic analyses of molecular data recovered M. bricenii nested within the diversity of M. rufina. These results indicate that M. bricenii should be regarded as a junior synonym of M. rufina. ENM analyses revealed the existence of suitable climatic conditions for M. rufina in the Táchira Depression during the last glacial maximum and even at present, suggesting that gene flow between populations in the CO and CM may have occurred until at least the beginning of the current interglacial period and may continue today. Because this pattern might characterize other mammals currently considered endemic to the CM, we examined which of these species match two criteria that we propose herein to estimate if they can be regarded as endemic to the CM with confidence: (1) that morphological or molecular evidence exists indicating that the putative endemic taxon is distinctive from congeneric populations in the CO; and (2) that the putative endemic taxon is restricted to either cloud forest or páramo, or both. Only Aepeomys reigi, Cryptotis meridensis, and Nasuella meridensis matched both criteria; hence, additional research is necessary to assess the true taxonomic status and distribution of the remaining species thought to be CM endemics.

Phylogeny, ecology, and sensorial constraints are thought to be the most important factors influencing echolocation call design in bats. The Molossidae is a diverse bat family with a majority of species restricted to tropical and subtropical regions. Most molossids are specialized to forage for insects in open space, and thus share similar navigational challenges. We use an unprecedented dataset on the echolocation calls of 8 genera and 18 species of New World molossids to explore how habitat, phylogenetic relatedness, body mass, and prey perception contribute to echolocation call design. Our results confirm that, with the exception of the genus Molossops, echolocation calls of these bats show a typical design for open space foraging. Two lines of evidence point to echolocation call structure of molossids reflecting phylogenetic relatedness. First, such structure is significantly more similar within than among genera. Second, except for allometric scaling, such structure is nearly the same in congeneric species. Despite contrasting body masses, 12 of 18 species call within a relatively narrow frequency range of 20 to 35 kHz, a finding that we explain by using a modeling approach whose results suggest this frequency range to be an adaptation optimizing prey perception in open space. To conclude, we argue that the high variability in echolocation call design of molossids is an advanced evolutionary trait allowing the flexible adjustment of echolocation systems to various sensorial challenges, while conserving sender identity for social communication. Unraveling evolutionary drivers for echolocation call design in bats has so far been hampered by the lack of adequate model organisms sharing a phylogenetic origin and facing similar sensorial challenges. We thus believe that knowledge of the echolocation call diversity of New World molossid bats may prove to be landmark to understand the evolution and functionality of species-specific signal design in bats.