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Blood samples were obtained from ostrich chicks every month during a complete calendar year to assess age-related hematology and plasma chemistry changes. Hematology analyses included total red blood cell count, hemoglobin estimation, packed cell volume, mean cell volume, mean cell hemoglobin, mean cell hemoglobin concentration, total white cell count, differential white blood cell count, and thrombocyte count. Most hematology variables studied showed significant age-related differences during the development of the ostrich chicks up to 12 months of age, with the exception of eosinophil and basophil counts. Plasma chemistry analyses included alkaline phosphatase, amylase, total bilirubin, blood urea nitrogen, calcium, cholesterol, creatinine, creatine kinase, gamma glutamyltransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase, glucose, iron, phosphate, total protein, and uric acid. All plasma chemistry variables studied showed significant age-related differences during the development of the ostrich chicks up to 12 months of age.

Blood samples were collected from captive, adult, clinically normal Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus) for hematologic and plasma biochemical analyses. Hematologic parameters investigated were total red blood cell count, hemoglobin, packed cell volume, fibrinogen, mean cell volume, mean cell hemoglobin, mean cell hemoglobin concentration, total white blood cell count, differential white blood cell count, and thrombocyte count. Plasma biochemical parameters investigated were alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, amylase, aspartate aminotransferase, bile acids, total bilirubin, blood urea nitrogen, calcium, cholesterol, creatinine, creatine kinase, gamma glutamyltransferase, lactate dehydrogenase, glucose, iron, phosphorus, and uric acid, as well as plasma protein electrophoresis. Results were compared with values from studies done in houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata), kori bustards (Ardeotis kori), stone curlews (Burhinus oedicnemus), and taxonomically related species, including ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus), red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa), Kashmir native fowl (Kashmirfavorella), and Bangladesh native, Fayoumi, and Assil fowl (Gallus domesticus).

THE gyr falcon (Falco rusticolus) is the largest falcon species in the world, and inhabits Arctic regions of North America, Greenland, Iceland and Eurasia. The species is considered polytypic, with four races, F r rusticolus in Europe, F r obsoletus in Asia and parts of North America, F r candicans from the high Arctic of North America and Greenland, and F r islandicus from Iceland. The gyr falcon is a medium-sized bird of prey, measuring 48 to 60 cm in length and with a wingspan of 120 to 135 cm. The bodyweight of males ranges from 961 g to 1321 g, and of females from 1262 g to 2100 g (del Hoyo and others 1994). The gyr falcon is one of the species used in the traditional sport of falconry in the Middle East. However, captive-bred or wild-caught gyr falcons have never been in great demand in the region, as these highly expensive birds appear to be more susceptible to disease, notably bumblefoot and aspergillosis (Samour 2000). It has also been suggested that gyr falcons seldom perform well and prove difficult to train and to engage large quarry (Upton 2002). Despite this, the number of captive-bred and wild-caught gyr falcons in captivity appears to be steadily increasing throughout the Middle East. For instance, at the authors’ hospital, only 15 gyr falcons were examined during the 1999/2000 season (September to March); this number increased to 37 during the 2000/01 season, 65 during the 2001/02 season and 71 during the 2002/03 season. Due to the increasing number of gyr falcons kept in captivity throughout the Middle East, it has become important to establish normal reference laboratory values in order to assess health and disease in individuals. Normal haematology reference values for captive-bred gyr falcons have recently been published by Wernery and others (2004). This short communication describes the results of a haematology study carried out in recently caught free-living gyr falcons used in falconry. Blood samples were collected from 25 adult (over nine months of age) female gyr falcons presented for general examination to the Falcon Specialist Hospital and Research Institute of the Fahad bin Sultan Falcon Center, Riyadh, during the 2003/04 season. All falcons had been wild-caught and were examined within two weeks of arriving in Saudi Arabia; it was estimated that the falcons had been in captivity for less than one month. All the birds were subjected to a systematic clinical assessment and declared clinically normal. The clinical assessment included a full physical examination, stress test and ventrodorsal and laterolateral radiographs. A blood sample was obtained from a basilic vein from each bird using a 2 ml disposable syringe and a 23 G, 5/8” disposable needle. The samples were collected while the falcons were under isoflurane anaesthesia (Isoflo; Mallinckrodt Veterinary) in oxygen, before the radiological examination. After collection, 0·3 to 0·5 ml of the blood was mixed with EDTA at 1·5 mg/ml blood in commercially available storage tubes. Haematological analyses were undertaken within 10 to 20 minutes after sample collection. Red blood cells (RBC) were counted manually by mixing 20 μl of blood into 4 ml of formol citrate solution and examining a sample by phase-contrast microscopy (Dacie and Lewis 1995) using an improved Neubauer double cell clearsight haemocytometer (Weber Scientific International). Haemoglobin was estimated as azidemethaemoglobin using a dedicated haemoglobinometer system (HemoCue). This system includes reagent-preloaded microcuvettes and a photometer. The readings are carried out at 570 nm and 880 nm to compensate for turbidity within the sample. For the estimation of haematocrit, plain microcapillary tubes (Hawksley & Sons) were filled to approximately three-quarters of the length with blood, and after one end was sealed using a commercially available sealing compound (Hawksley & Sons) the tubes were centrifuged at 10,000 g for five minutes using a microhaematocrit centrifuge (Hawksley & Sons). Haematocrit readings were carried out using a manual microhaematocrit reader (Hawksley & Sons). Fibrinogen was estimated as protein precipitated using the same microcapillary tubes used for the measurements of haematocrit (Millar and others 1971). After the estimation of haematocrit, the microcapillary tubes were heated at 56°C for three minutes in a waterbath and then recentrifuged at 10,000 g for five minutes. The microcapillary tubes were then placed on to a modified microscope slide and measurements were taken at the interface of the white cell-thrombocyte layer, at the top of the protein layer and plasma column, using a light microscope fitted with a 16 mm objective using the microscope stage Vernier and a micrometer eyepiece (Hawkey and Samour 1988). The concentration of fibrinogen was calculated from these measurements. The mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH) and mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC) of the RBCs were calculated using standard formulae (Dacie and Lewis 1995). White blood cells (WBCs) were counted manually by mixing 100 μl of blood into 1·9 ml of 1 per cent ammonium oxalate solution and examining by phase-contrast microscopy (Hawkey and Samour 1988) using an improved Neubauer double cell clearsight haemocytometer. Differential WBC and thrombocyte counts, and assessment of the morphology of white and red cells, were carried out in blood films fixed in acetone-free absolute methanol for five minutes and stained using a modified Wright-Giemsa staining procedure. The working stain was prepared using 3 g Wright stain powder, 0·3 g Giemsa stain powder, 5 ml glycerol and absolute methanol to 1000 ml. The staining protocol was as previously described by Campbell (1992). Blood films were examined using a x 100 oil immersion lens. White and red cells were measured under a x 100 oil immersion lens on the same blood films using a micrometer eyepiece. The results of the morphometric study of the RBCs, WBCs and thrombocytes in the gyr falcons are shown in Table 1. The RBCs were elongated, oval-shaped cells, mean (se) 14·82 (0·07) x 7·21 (0·04) μm, with slightly basophilic (blue-grey) cytoplasm containing a relatively large nucleus with evenly distributed chromatin clusters. Scanty immature red cells at different stages of development were observed in all films examined. One or two red cells without nuclei, or erythroplastids, were also observed in most films. The heterophils were large round cells, 12·72 (0·11) μm, with colourless cytoplasm containing a bilobed nucleus. The cytoplasm contained Veterinary Record (2005) 157, 844-847

Lead toxicity is the most common heavy metal toxicosis in free-living birds, and one of the most important diseases of toxic origin in captive avian species. Falcons commonly ingest lead pellets or lead fragments concealed in the body of shot prey. Treatment of heavy metal toxicosis is an integral part of avian emergency and critical care practice. The primary treatment for lead toxicosis consists of the retrieval of lead particles from the digestive tract, and the secondary treatment consists of the use of chelating agents and support therapy. Lead retrieval from falcons with lead toxicosis should be undertaken immediately after the metallic radiodense particles have been observed in the gastrointestinal tract on survey radiographs. Lead pellets and lead fragments are retrieved using a combination of stomach lavage, rigid or flexible endoscopy, and long biopsy forceps.

Radiographic records were reviewed from 1702 falcons of different species that were presented to the Falcon Specialist Hospital and Research Institute of the Fahad bin Sultan Falcon Center, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, from September 1, 1998, to March 1, 2002. The most common radiographic findings were homogeneous and nonhomogeneous increased radiopacity and localized soft-tissue densities of the lungs and air sacs, hepatomegaly, presence of lead particles or excessive amounts of sand in the gastrointestinal tract, gastrointestinal tract dilatation, and bone fractures. These findings contribute to the scant information available about health and disease of falcons in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in particular and in the Middle East in general.

Clinical records from 3376 falcons of different species presented to the Falcon Specialist Hospital and Research Institute of the Fahad bin Sultan Falcon Center, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, from September 1, 1998, to March 1, 2001, were reviewed to determine the causes of morbidity and mortality in falcons in Saudi Arabia. The most common causes of morbidity were infectious diseases, traumatic injuries, toxicosis, and metabolic or nutritional diseases. The most common causes of mortality were bacterial and fungal diseases, bumblefoot, collision-type injuries, injuries inflicted by other birds, lead and ammonium chloride toxicosis, gout, sour crop, and low body condition. These findings contribute to the limited available information about morbidity and mortality in falcons in Saudi Arabia in particular and in the Middle East in general.

A user-friendly database, captive, was developed to store and manipulate veterinary and aviculture records for the bustard captive-breeding programme at the National Avian Research Center, Abu Dhabi. The system was based on access version 2.0 (Microsoft Corporation) which is a comparatively inexpensive commercial database program, for use on microcomputers. captive was designed as a management tool, producing standard aviculture and veterinary reports from a scheduled input of data, and as a versatile research tool to answer ad hoc enquiries about the data. Paper forms were designed to allow aviculture and veterinary personnel to record the data, and non-technical staff to input the information into the computer program. Standard reports were designed so that staff who are unfamiliar with the database program can retrieve a menu of routine records. An additional series of ‘attached’ databases were linked to the main database, allowing personnel who are more familiar with the program to retrieve and manipulate complex data sets. The advantages and disadvantages of customizing a system in-house are discussed.

From 1998 to 2001, a total of 3760 falcons were presented to the Falcon Medical Research Hospital of the Fahad bin Sultan Falcon Center. From this total, 11 (0.3%) adult (>1-year-old) falcons, including 8 saker falcons (Falco cherrug), 2 peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus), and 1 lanner falcon (Falco biarmicus), were admitted for treatment of candidiasis. Affected falcons showed general clinical signs including reduced to total absence of appetite, shredding and flicking of food, regurgitation, and progressive weight loss. The diagnosis of clinical candidiasis was made from clinical signs, endoscopic examination of the upper digestive tract, histologic observation of typical Candida albicans blastospores on samples obtained from the crop, and positive fungal cultures. Therapy consisted of applying a miconazole gel directly to the thoracic esophagus and crop twice daily for 5 consecutive days. Miconazole proved to be an effective, fast, and inexpensive antifungal agent suitable for the treatment of candidiasis in captive falcons.

A total of 3251 falcons were examined at the Falcon Medical Research Hospital of the Fahad bin Sultan Falcon Center, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, between September 1999 and March 2001. Of this total, 96 falcons (2.9%), including 78 saker (Falco cherrug), 12 peregrine (Falco peregrinus), and 6 lanner (Falco biarmicus) falcons, were admitted for treatment of lead toxicosis. Lead toxicosis was diagnosed by evaluating the anamnesis, clinical signs, radiographic findings, and blood lead concentrations as measured by an electrochemical analysis system that reported blood lead concentrations within several minutes. Thirty-four (35.4%) of the falcons treated had radiographic evidence of lead pellets or fragments in the gastrointestinal tract. In all cases with lead pellets present in the ventriculus, the blood lead concentration was >65 μg/dl (0.65 ppm). However, in 62 (64.5%) of the treated falcons, no radiographic evidence was found of lead pellets or fragments in the ventriculus. The blood lead co...

Blood samples were collected from 67 clinically normal gyr falcons (Falco rusticolus) to determine plasma bile acids reference value for this species. Bile acid concentrations were measured using the Trinity Biotech Bile Acids test kit (Trinity Biotech, USA) for quantitative, enzymatic determination of bile acids using an automatic wet chemistry analyzer (Miura 500, Sistemi Intelligenti Elettronici, ISE, S.r.1., Rome, Italy). The results demonstrated a mean value of 35.40 ± 14.06 μmol/L (mean ± standard deviation) with a range of 5.41–68.0 μmol/L.

The clinical and pathologic findings of 3 houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata mac- queenii) with tarsometatarsal deformities are presented. These birds were hatched and reared at the National Avian Research Center in the United Arab Emirates as part of its captive breeding program. All 3 birds had short tarsometatarsal bones as a result of chondrodystrophy. Two of these birds developed varus deformities and fused tarsometatarsal trochleae that resulted in swollen intertarsal joints, luxated gastrocnemius tendons, and dislocated phalanges. One bird was euthanized, and the other 2 were excluded from the captive breeding program.

Serratospiculiasis is a parasitic disease produced by filarial nematodes of the genus Serratospiculum in the subfamily Dicheilonematinae. This genus comprises at least 9 different species grouped according to the length of the spicules. In the Middle East, S seurati has been the only species of this genus positively identified to date in captive falcons. Serratospiculum seurati has an indirect life cycle, like other filarioids. In a previous study, the larval life cycle of S seurati was replicated in 5 different species of beetles. More recently, 2 additional invertebrate species (a beetle and a wood louse) that occur where falcons are maintained were added. Serratospiculum seurati is transmitted in captivity by ingestion of infected beetles. After beetle ingestion, the L3 larvae are released from their capsule and penetrate the wall of the proventriculus and ventriculus. Histopathologic evidence suggests that the migration to the air sac system is direct. After reaching the air sacs, the L3 larva undergoes 2 molts to produce the L5 or immature adult filarial worm. Adult parasites breed and produce large numbers of embryonated ova, which are coughed out through the trachea to the mouth, swallowed, then excreted in the feces. Histopathologic findings in infected birds normally demonstrate the presence of adult filarial worms, larvae, and embryonated ova within tissues. Numerous parasitic stages in the lung periphery are associated with mild focal hemorrhages, focal necrosis, and mild to moderate macrophage infiltration. Adult filarial parasites are commonly observed on both sides of the collagen-muscle fiber layer immediately below the epithelial or mesothelial section of the air sacs. In several birds with severe infections, S seurati was associated with pneumonia, airsacculitis, and early lesions of aspergillosis. Ivermectin has been routinely used at the dosage of 1 mg/kg SC repeated 1 or 2 weeks later without observing any detrimental effects. Currently, the anthelmintic agent moxidectin, administered in tablet form, is undergoing trials for the control of S seurati infections in captive falcons.

A serial radiographic study was conducted on seven houbara bustard (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii), 10 rufous-crested bustard (Eupodotis ruficrista), four white-bellied bustard (Eupodotis senegalensis) and eight kori bustard (Ardeotis kori) chicks to determine the growth rate of long bones and to establish radiographic standards for assessing skeletal maturity. The growth rates of the tarsometatarsus and tibiotarsus in the bustard species investigated were similar to those in domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus) and some long-legged avian species. Maturation of long bones occurred earlier in houbara bustards compared with rufous-crested, white-bellied and kori bustards.

There is a large illegal trade in trapped houbara bustards Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii, which are smuggled into the Middle East for falconry. Mortality is high and is associated with poor transport conditions, malnutrition, overcrowding and exposure to multiple infectious diseases, in particular aspergillosis, avian pox and paramyxovirus type 1 virus. Other pathogens include Salmonella sp., Pseudomoims sp., Trichomonas sp., intestinal endoparasites, avian leucosis, reovirus, adeno-virus, paramyxovirus type 2 and Chlamydia sp. Various regional initiatives have been initiated to confiscate and rehabilitate illegally trapped birds. This paper reviews the causes of morbidity and mortality seen in illegally traded houbara bustards and provides health recommendations for those involved in rehabilitation.

A protozoal survey was carried out in 114 captive houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata) in the United Arab Emirates. Trichomonas gallinarum, Chilomastix gallinarum, Giardia spp. and Lophomonas spp. were detected from faecal samples of 49 (43%) captive houbara bustards. Culture and identification studies were carried out to assess associated bacteria. The bacteria isolated from birds negative to protozoa included Enterococcus spp., Aerococcus spp., Micrococci spp., Proteus spp., Enterobacter spp., Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp., while Enterococcus spp., Micrococci kristinae, Aerococcus spp., Staphylococcus sciuri, Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli, Klebsiella spp. and Alcaligenes faecalis were isolated from protozoa positive birds. Proteus spp., Enterobacter spp., E. coli , Klebsiella spp., Aerococcus spp. and Enterococcus spp. are considered part of the normal intestinal bacterial flora of captive bustards and they were also isolated from the food items used to feed the captive bustards. S. sciuri possibly originated from ingested mice; Alcaligenes faecalis and Micrococcus spp. are contaminants from soil or water.

Plasma chemistry parameters were measured in adult (1.5 yr) and juvenile (4-8 and 9-16 wk) captive houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii) and from adult (1.5 yr) and juvenile (4-8, 9-16, 17-24, 25-32, 33-40 and 41-52 wk) captive kori bustards (Ardeotis kori) to study age-related changes. A comparison of the values obtained was made between adult and juvenile bustards of both species and from the literature with other bustard species. Significant differences between adult and juvenile bustards of both species were found for glucose, total protein, alkaline phosphatase (ALKP), aspartate amino transferase (AST), lactate dehydrogenase, and calcium. Some parameters, such as calcium, showed comparable age-related changes in both species. In contrast, other parameters showed clear differences in the type (ALT, AST) or magnitude (ALKP) of age-related change between the species, demonstrating the importance of determining normal values for individual species. The results obtained from this study provide blood chemistry values for these species and demonstrate age-related differences between adult and juvenile birds.

A study was carried out to investigate the normal aerobic bacterial flora of developing kori bustard (Ardeotis kori) chicks, captive bred at the National Avian Research Center, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Faecal samples were collected from 14 birds at different ages from the first day of hatching until 99 days old and were cultured for aerobic bacteria. Several bacterial species were isolated from the cultures, they included Escherichia coli, Streptococcus viridians, Enterococcus faecalis, Klebsiella oxytoca, Proteus spp., Enterobacter, spp. and Serratia marcescens. Gram-negative bacilli were isolated from all but one of the faecal samples collected. They were also the predominant bacteria, accounting for between 55.6 and 73.4% of the mean colony count of faecal cultures from all age groups. E. coli was the most frequently isolated bacteria, the frequency and mean colony count increased as the birds grew older. Gram-positive cocci were isolated from between 50 and 100% of the faecal samples from all age groups, and they accounted for between 26.6 and 44.4% of the mean colony count. Results from this study indicated that Gram-negative bacilli and Gram-positive cocci can be isolated frequently from the faeces of developing, clinically normal, captive bred kori bustard chicks.

Blood samples were obtained from adult (τ;1 year) and juvenile (4–8 weeks, 9–16 weeks, 17–24 weeks) captive white-bellied bustards (Eupodotis senegalensis) to determine normal blood chemistry reference values and to study age-related changes. Twelve different tests were conducted using a Dupont Dimension wet chemistry analyser. A comparison of the values obtained was made between adult and juvenile white-bellied bustards and from the literature with other bustard species. Significant differences between adult and juvenile bustards were found for glucose, uric acid, total protein, alkaline phosphatase, aspartate amino transferase, lactate dehydrogenase, magnesium and calcium. The results obtained from this study provide blood chemistry reference values for this species and demonstrate age-related differences between adult and juvenile birds.

Blood samples were obtained from adult (> 1.5 years) and juvenile (2-8 weeks, 9-16 weeks and 17-24 weeks) captive buff-crested bustards (Eupodotis ruficrista gindiana) to study age-related changes. A total of twelve different tests were conducted using a Hitachi 90011 wet chemistry analyzer. A comparison of the values obtained was made between adult and juvenile buff-crested bustards and from the literature with other bustard species. Significant differences between adult and juvenile buff-crested bustards were found for glucose, uric acid, total protein, alkaline phosphatase, asparatate amino transferase and calcium. The results obtained from this study provide blood chemistry values for this species and demonstrate age-related differences between adult and juvenile birds.

This study describes the gross anatomy of the alimentary tract of Houbara Bustards (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii), Kori Bustards (Ardeotis kori), Rufous-crested Bustards (Eupodotis ruficrista) and White-bellied Bustards (Eupodotis senegalensis) maintained in captivity by the National Avian Research Center in the United Arab Emirates. The morphology of the alimentary tract and the proportions of each region were similar in all 4 species. The length of the oesophagus, combined proventriculus and ventriculus, small intestine, and large intestine formed 24.2-28.4%, 7.3-9.7%, 40.5-55.1% and 9.1-14.7% of the total alimentary tract length respectively. Neither crop nor oesophageal enlargement was observed in the birds examined in this study, although male Kori Bustards possessed a saccus oralis in the oropharyngeal cavity. Oesophagi, proventriculi, ventriculi, caeca and large intestine were well developed in all species. The small intestine was shorter than that of other avian herbivores and granivores when compared on a bodyweight basis. The well differentiated stomachs and well developed caeca of the bustards examined in this study are characteristic of omnivores. Analysis of the mean lengths of the alimentary tract components and weight of the liver and pancreas showed sexual dimorphism in cases where male and female data were available for direct comparison.

Blood samples were obtained from clinically normal aviary housed houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii) sampled promptly (

The National Avian Research Center is a scientific and conservation organization based in Abu Dhabi. The flagship species for the organization are the Houbara bustard Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii and the Saker falcon Falco cherrug. To minimize the risk of infectious diseases being introduced into the Center a quarantine station was built to facilitate the screening of all incoming birds. This paper describes the design of the quarantine station, technical systems, water supply and drainage, and the maintenance and husbandry practices implemented at the station.

Biomedical data and material are invaluable in research and allow those managing captive-breeding and restoration programmes to build up accurate biological profiles of free-living and captive populations. This paper describes the establishment of a collection of biomedical reference material for the Houbara bustard Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii at the National Avian Research Center, Abu Dhabi. The numerous practical uses of the material are also described.

An immature female peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) was presented with a history of reduced appetite, gradual weight loss, and passing metallic-green urates. Survey radiographs revealed a slightly enlarged liver. Plasma biochemical analysis showed moderate to severe increases in concentrations of creatine kinase, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, and alkaline phosphatase, and hematologic analysis showed mild leukocytosis with severe lymphocytosis and mild monocytosis. The erythrocytes showed moderate hypochromasia with mild to moderate poikilocytosis and anisocytosis. Intracytoplasmic parasitic forms were observed in the erythrocytes, which were subsequently identified as Babesia shortii. It was estimated that the parasite was present in approximately 5.1% of the erythrocytes examined. The primary treatment consisted of the administration of imidocarb dipropionate administered at 5 mg/kq IM given once and repeated 1 week later. Supportive therapy was also provided. The falc...

Blood samples were collected from three white-bellied (Eupodotis senegalensis), four little black (Eupodotis afra) and five Heuglin's (Neotis heuglinii) bustards. All birds were captive adults and clinically normal at the time of sampling. Standard haematology assays were carried out to establish normal reference values for the three species. The results obtained are compared with similar studies conducted in the houbara (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii), rufous-crested (Eupodotis ruficrista) and kori (Ardeotis kori) bustards.

Routine haematology investigations were carried out on blood samples obtained from 28 clinically normal adult kori bustards (Ardeotis kori) during routine health checks. The results provide the first set of haematological reference values for this species that can assist the avian clinician with the interpretation of haemoresponses to disease and to monitor the progress of patients under therapeutic regimes. A comparative analysis between the results obtained in this study and other bustard species is presented.

Blood samples were collected from 14 male and 20 female clinically normal captive houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii). Standard haematology assays were carried out to establish normal reference values for the species. No significant statistical differences were observed between males and females. The results obtained are compared with similar studies conducted in the great bustard (Otis tarda).

Blood samples were collected from 12 clinically normal (CN) and 12 clinically abnormal (CA) captive houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenu). Total white blood cell counts for each group were carried out, followed by differential white cell and thrombocyte counts. One hundred thrombocytes from each bird were also measured using a micrometer eye piece and oil immersion light microscopy. The CA birds had significant increases both in the total white blood cell count and in the counts for heterophils, monocytes and basophils. This was associated with a significant thrombocytosis. The thrombocytes from the CA birds were also found to be significantly larger (‘mega’ thrombcytes) than those from the CN birds. These results suggest that the increase in the total white blood cell count in chronic inflammation in the houbara bustard is mainly due to an increase in the number of heterophils, monocytes and basophils. These results also suggest that both the thrombocyte count and the thrombocyte morphometrics may be important components of routine diagnostic haematological investigations in houbara bustards.

A study was conducted to determine the health status of the free-living spiny-tailed lizard (Uromastyx spp.) population at Wrsan, Al Ajban, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. A total of 90 spiny-tailed lizards, 61 males and 29 females, were examined from June to August 2006. Mean body weights were 1,564.4 g and 809.4 g for males and females, respectively. Mean body lengths were 62.1 cm and 49.4 cm for males and females, respectively. Fourteen lizards were found with abnormalities including abscesses, bite wounds, and deformed or missing tail ends, digits, or claws. Radiographic examination revealed osteomyelitis, arthritis, and healed fractures. Reference hematology and chemistry values were obtained from the 76 clinically normal lizards. Hemoparasitemia included possible new species of Karyolysus and Hepatozoon. The most common oropharyngeal organisms isolated were Escherichia coli, Providencia spp., and nonhemolytic Staphylococcus; and the most common cloacal organisms were E. coli, Proteus spp., Providencia spp., and nonhemolytic Staphylococcus. Ascarids were the only endoparasites found. This is the first biomedical data published for the spiny-tailed lizard.

An oro-pharyngeal protozoal survey was carried out in captive bustards in the United Arab Emirates. .Endolimax spp., .Entamoeba gallinarum, Acanthamoeba spp., .Naegleria spp. and .Coccidia spp. were the protozoa isolated from the oro-pharynx of clinically normal birds. The protozoa species involved in oro-pharyngeal diseases were .Trichomonas gallinae and .Entamoeba anatis. Most of the protozoa observed in clinical cases were associated with severe secondary bacterial infections possibly due to the suppression of normal oro-pharyngeal bacterial flora which includes .Escherichia coli, Enterobacter spp., .Klebsiella spp. and .Citrobacter spp. In this respect, .Pseudomonas spp., and .Staphylococcus spp., were isolated from individuals affected with oro-pharyngeal diseases. In such cases, inflammatory changes in the oro-pharynx were detected associated with white-yellow caseous nodular lesions, mucous discharge, exfoliation of epithelial cells and the presence of inflammatory cells.

A serial radiographic study was conducted on eight kori bustard (Ardeotis kori) and four white-bellied bustard (Eupodotis senegalensis) chicks to determine the pattern of long bone development and to establish radiographic standards for assessing skeletal maturity. The ossification pattern, appearance of secondary ossification centres, and epiphyseal fusion of the long bones in kori and white-bellied bustards were similar to those in houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii), rufous-crested bustards (Eupodotis ruficrista), domestic fowl (Gallus gallus), house wrens (Troglodytes aedon aedon), racing pigeons (Columba livia), and barn owls (Tyto alba). Secondary ossification centres were present at the proximal and distal tibiotarsus, proximal tarsometatarsus and proximal metacarpal III. The ossification of long bones occurred earlier in female kori bustards compared with males.

Blood samples were collected from six juvenile (age 4–6 months) and 14 adult (two years and more) clinically normal captive rufous-crested bustards (Eupodotis ruficrista). Standard haematology assays were carried out to establish normal reference values for the species and to investigate any age-related differences. Compared with adults, juveniles showed low haemoglobin levels, mean cell haemoglobin and mean cell haemoglobin concentrations but higher fibrinogen levels. In juveniles, the total white cell count was high, with a higher number of lymphocytes but a lower number of basophils compared to the adults. The results obtained from this study not only provide important haematological reference values for this species but they also demonstrate age-related haematological changes between juvenile and adult birds.

Blood samples were obtained at monthly intervals between April 1994 and March 1996 from captive-bred houbara (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii), rufous-crested (Eupodotis ruficrista gindiana), and white-bellied (Eupodotis senegalensis) bustards from 4-24 wk of age. Hematology investigations were conducted to determine age-related changes and to establish reference values for growing chicks of these species. There were significant age-related changes in hematocrit, hemoglobin, and red cell count in young birds compared with those of adults. White cell counts (lymphocytes and monocytes) were higher in juvenile birds, compared with adult values.

Studies were conducted to monitor the decline of maternal antibodies to paramyxovirus type 1 (PMV-1) in kori bustard chicks (Ardeotis kori), and to determine the antibody response in birds with low levels of maternally derived immunity (MDI) after being given either one or five times the standard domestic fowl dose of a live PMV-1 La Sota vaccine intranasally. The results confirmed that PMV-1 antibodies were transferred to eggs and chicks derived from kori bustard hens immunized with inactivated vaccine 5 to 8 mo previously. The levels of inherited antibody in chicks varied considerably, with 21% of birds having no detectable antibodies at day 14 Chicks hatched from dams with high hemagglutination inhibition (HI) antibody titers had high titers of MDI. Mean antibody levels in seropositive chicks were log2 6.3 and log2 2.9 on days 14 and 42, respectively. The rate of decline of detectable antibodies (1 log2), was estimated to be 5.50 to 6.25 days and 12.25 days in 14 to 21 and 28 to 42 day old chicks, respectively. There was no significant HI antibody response in bustards given a primary vaccination of either one or five times the standard domestic fowl dose of live vaccine intranasally up to 3 wk post-vaccination. High levels of HI antibodies, log2 7.4, were detected in birds given a secondary dose of inactivated vaccine, but not in birds given a secondary dose of live vaccine at 2 wk post-vaccination.

Blood samples were obtained from two sub-species of captive houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata undulata and Chlamydotis undulara macqueenii) in order to establish normal blood chemistry reference values. The two sub-species were housed under the same conditions, the only difference being that C. u. undulata were fed exclusively on concentrated feed (in the form of pellets) and C. u. macqueenii were fed on a mixture of concentrated feed, minced meat and mixed vegetables/fruits. Twenty one different tests were conducted using a Kodak Ektachem DT II dry-chemistry system. Significant differences between the two sub-species were found for glucose, creatinine, total bilirubin, total protein, albumin, globulin, albumin/globulin ratio, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, ammonia, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, cholesterol and triglycerides. The results obtained from this study provide important reference blood chemistry values for the two sub-species and demonstrate a possible effect of different dietary regimes or simply a genotypic variation between the sub-species.

Summary Blood samples were obtained from clinically normal captive adult kori bustards (Ardeotis kori) in order to establish normal reference blood chemistry values for the species. Twenty‐four different tests were conducted using a Kodak Ektachem DT II dry‐chemistry system. A comparison of the values obtained was made with those of two sub‐species of houbara bustard (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii and Chlamydo‐tis undulata undulata) and the great bustard (Otis tarda), and showed some similarities between the different species. The results obtained from this study provide the first set of published data for normal blood chemistry of the kori bustard.

Summary A routine microscopic examination of blood smears from 52 houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenit) recently imported into the United Arab Emirates revealed that 32 (61.5%) birds were infected with Haemoproteus tendeiroi and H. telfordi. Haemoproteus tendeiroi was found alone in most of the infected birds, whereas a combination of H. telfordi and H. tendeiroi was found together in two birds, and only one bird was infected with H. telfordi alone. In eight recently imported rufous‐crested bustards (Eupodotis ruficrista), 50% were found to be infected with haemoparasites. Four birds were infected with H. telfordi and one of these was also infected with H. tendeiroi. The schizonts for the two Haemoproteus species described in this study may have had predilection for skeletal muscle as these were not detected in several other tissue samples examined from known infected birds.

A survey was carried out to describe the normal aerobic bacterial flora of the conjunctiva and nasal cavity of captive houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata), kori bustards (Ardeotis kori), and white-bellied bustards (Eupodotis senegalensis) maintained at the National Avian Research Center, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. A total of 58 samples were examined from the nasal cavity and 55 samples from the conjunctiva of healthy bustards. There was no bacterial growth in 45% of conjunctival samples. Bacteria isolated from the conjunctiva of healthy birds included Micrococcus spp., Staphylococcus auricularis, Staphylococcus xylosus, Staphylococcus capitis, Staphylococcus warneri, Bacillus spp., and Enterobacter amigenus. Bacteria isolated from the nasal cavity of healthy birds included Bacillus spp., Micrococcus spp., S. auricularis, S. xylosus, Staphylococcus simulans, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, Staphylococcus hyicus, Staphylococcus cohnii, Staphylococcus sciuri, Aerococcus spp., and Providencia rettgeri. These findings were compared with bacterial isolates from bustards with clinical signs of ocular or upper respiratory tract diseases. Mycoplasma spp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas stutzeri, Proteus mirabilis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp., Aeromonas hydrophila, and Staphylococcus aureus were the pathogenic bacteria isolated from the conjunctiva of 34.3% bustards with ocular discharges. Mycoplasma spp., P. aeruginosa, Pseudomonas spp., P. mirabilis, E. coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and S. aureus were the pathogenic bacteria isolated from the nasal cavity of 74% bustards with upper respiratory tract diseases.

The resistance to 11 antimicrobial agents of bacteria isolated from clinical and postmortem cases of five species of bustards maintained in captivity in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) from 1995 to 1997 was determined by disc sensitivity. Of 226 isolates, 169 (74.8%) were gram-negative bacilli, with the majority identified as Escherichia coli (28.8%) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (19%). The isolates of E. coli showed a high prevalence of resistance to amoxycillin (69%), tetracycline (66.7%), and sulphamethoxazole (43.3%). Moderate resistance to enrofloxacin was observed in E. coli (30%) and P. aeruginosa (13%) isolates. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) to seven antimicrobial agents were determined for 133 bacterial isolates from bustards during 1996 to 1997. Enrofloxacin (concentration required to inhibit 50% of the isolates [MIC50] < 0.5 mu g/ml) and gentamicin (MIC50 less than or equal to 1.0 mu g/ml) exhibited good activity against both gram-negative bacilli and staphylococci isolated from bustards. Enrofloxacin (MIC50 less than or equal to 1.5 mu g/ml), gentamicin (MIC50 less than or equal to 2.0 mu g/ ml), and piperacillin (MIC50 less than or equal to 4.0 mu g/ml) exhibited good activity against P. aeruginosa isolates. Amoxycillin/clavulanic acid showed good activity (concentration required to inhibit 90% of the isolates [MIC50] less than or equal to 2.0 mu g/ml) against gram-positive cocci and moderate activity (MIC50 less than or equal to 3.0 mu g/ml) against E. coli, Salmonella spp., and Klebsiella spp. Amoxycillin exhibited good activity (MIC50 less than or equal to 0.5 mu g/ml) against gram-positive organisms and moderate activity (MIC50 less than or equal to 1.0 mu g/ml) against Salmonella spp. These results provide information on the prevalence of resistant bacterial strains and the MICs of organisms derived From bustards in the UAE.

A review was conducted of 236 postmortem examinations of six species of captive and imported bustards in the United Arab Emirates for the period 1979-94. The most common causes of death in adult imported houbara bustards (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii) were euthanasia due to Newcastle disease, aspergillosis, and post-transportation-related deaths. Helminth parasites were a common finding in imported houbara bustards, and large parasite burdens occasionally caused intestinal obstruction and death. The most common causes of death in adult captive houbara bustards were trauma-related deaths and euthanasia for or death following treatment for capture myopathy. Fatty liver change was an important postmortem finding of captive adult houbara bustards. The main cause of death in juvenile houbara bustards was yolk-sac infection and septicemia. The most common causes of death in adult kori bustards (Ardeotis kori) were capture myopathy and handling injuries or euthanasia following these injuries. The most common causes of death in adult rufouscrested bustards (Eupodotis ruficrista) were post-transportation deaths in imported birds and trichomoniasis and trauma in captive birds. Juvenile rufous-crested bustards appeared to be highly susceptible to gizzard impactions and foreign-body obstructions of the gastrointestinal tract. Nutritional bone disease is an important disease of all juvenile bustards, particularly kori and houbara bustards. Aspergillosis was also a common postmortem finding in captive and imported adult houbara bustards and also caused mortality in juvenile kori and houbara bustards.

SUMMARY. The findings of 1746 clinical examinations of 594 bustards of six different species are presented, and the differences of causes of morbidity between imported adult, captive adult, and captive juvenile bustards are discussed. Wing tip trauma, keel trauma, and other soft tissue-related traumatic injuries were the most commonly diagnosed clinical conditions in captive adult bustards, accounting for 50.7% of the total findings in this category. Soft tissue-related related traumatic injuries accounted for 26.3% and 5.3% of the findings of imported adult and captive juvenile bustards, respectively. Musculoskeletal disorders were the most commonly diagnosed clinical conditions in captive juvenile bustards, accounting for 61.3% of the total findings in this category. Nutritional bone disease was the single most important musculoskeletal disorder in captive juvenile bustards, accounting for 24% of total findings. Musculoskeletal disorders accounted for 22.9% and 4.9% of findings in captive adult and imported adult bustards, respectively. Parasitic observations accounted for 24.7% of the total findings in imported adult bustards. Infectious viral diseases were almost exclusively confined to the imported adult bustards, making up 20.1% of findings in this group. Opthalmologic conditions accounted for 15.1% of findings in imported adult bustards. RESUMEN. Causas de morbilidad en avutardas en los Emiratos Arabes Unidos. Se presentan los resultados de 1746 exiamenes clinicos obtenidos de 594 avutardas de 6 especies diferentes. Se discuten las diferencias de las causas de morbilidad entre las avutardas adultas importadas, adultas cautivas y j6venes cautivas. Las condiciones clinicas diagnosticadas mas comunmente en las avutardas adultas cautivas fueron trauma del extremo del ala, trauma del area del esternon y otras heridas traumaticas del tejido blando, alcanzando el 50.7% de los resultados totales en esta categoria. Las heridas traumaticas del tejido blando fueron del 26.3% en las avutardas adultas importadas y 5.3% para las jovenes cautivas. Los des6rdenes musculoesqueleticos fueron el problema clfnico mas comuinmente diagnosticado en las avutardas j6venes, llegando al 61.3% del total. Las alteraciones 6seas de origen nutricional constituyeron la condicion mas importante del sistema musculoesqueletico en las avutardas jovenes cautivas, llegando al 24%. Los desordenes musculoesqueleticos llegaron al 22.9% en las avutardas adultas cautivas y el 4.9% en las adultas importadas. Las observaciones de parasitos alcanzaron el 24.7% del total en las avutardas adultas importadas. Las enfermedades infecciosas virales fueron casi exclusivamente confinadas a las avutardas adultas importadas, Ilegando al 20.1%. Las condiciones oftalmologicas llegaron al 15.1% en las avutardas adultas importadas.