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The aim of the experiment was to check the effectiveness of the varroacide veterinary product called PolyVar Yellow® (flumethrin 275 mg) in field conditions in the area of north-eastern Poland. The experiment was carried out on twenty bee colonies, of which in ten (group PY) were tested with the veterinary product and the remaining ten constituted a control group without anti-varroosis treatment (group C). Treatment began in mid-August and lasted until the end of October when bee flights ceased. A control treatment was then conducted with a 3.2% oxalic acid solution. The effectiveness of Varroacide of PolyVar Yellow® was estimated on the basis of the parasite falls on the Varroa sticky inserts and based on the infestation rate of bees with the parasite before and after the treatment. High varroacide effectiveness of the preparation was obtained at 97%. The tested veterinary product was shown to protect effectively bee colonies against reinvasion of Varroa destructor mites.

American foulbrood is a dangerous bee disease that attacks the sealed brood. It quickly leads to the death of bee colonies. Efficient diagnosis of this disease is essential. As specific odours are produced when larvae rot, it was investigated whether an electronic nose can distinguish between colonies affected by American foulbrood and healthy ones. The experiment was conducted in an apiary with 18 bee families, 9 of which showed symptoms of the disease confirmed by laboratory diagnostics. Three units of the Beesensor V.2 device based on an array of six semiconductor TGS gas sensors, manufactured by Figaro, were tested. Each copy of the device was tested in all bee colonies: sick and healthy. The measurement session per bee colony lasted 40 min and yielded results from four 10 min measurements. One 10-min measurement consisted of a 5 min regeneration phase and a 5 min object-measurement phase. For the experiments, we used both classical classification methods such as k-nearest neighbour, Naive Bayes, Support Vector Machine, discretized logistic regression, random forests, and committee of classifiers, that is, methods based on extracted representative data fragments. We also used methods based on the entire 600 s series, in this study of sequential neural networks. We considered, in this study, six options for data preparation as part of the transformation of data series into representative results. Among others, we used single stabilised sensor readings as well as average values from stable areas. For verifying the quality of the classical classifiers, we used the 25-fold train-and-test method. The effectiveness of the tested methods reached a threshold of 75 per cent, with results stable between 65 and 70 per cent. As an element to confirm the possibility of class separation using an artificial nose, we used applied visualisations of classes. It is clear from the experiments conducted that the artificial nose tested has practical potential. Our experiments show that the approach to the problem under study by sequential network learning on a sequence of data is comparable to the best classical methods based on discrete data samples. The results of the experiment showed that the Beesensor V.2 along with properly selected classification techniques can become a tool to facilitate rapid diagnosis of American foulbrood under field conditions.

International audience; AbstractVarroa destructor is an external parasite of Apis mellifera and feeds on the haemolymph of pupae and adult bees, vectoring numerous viral pathogens, in particular the deformed wing virus (DWV). However, the changes in haemolymph protein composition after Varroa infestation are unknown. The objective of this study was to investigate alterations in the haemolymph proteome in relation to Varroa parasitism. Using two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis and MALDI-TOF/TOF mass spectrometry, we identified changes in 44 haemolymph proteins in response to the parasite and one in protein originated from DWV. The following pathways were affected by Varroa infestation, including carbohydrate metabolism, detoxification and oxidative stress response, nutrient reservoir activity, oxidoreductase activity and the olfactory system. Several physiological functions of honey bees, such as energy metabolism, detoxification, metamorphosis and chemosensing, may be disrupted by Varroa.

Varroosis is a dangerous and difficult to diagnose disease decimating bee colonies. The studies conducted sought answers on whether the electronic nose could become an effective tool for the efficient detection of this disease by examining sealed brood samples. The prototype of a multi-sensor recorder of gaseous sensor signals with a matrix of six semiconductor gas sensors TGS 823, TGS 826, TGS 832, TGS 2600, TGS 2602, and TGS 2603 from FIGARO was tested in this area. There were 42 objects belonging to 3 classes tested: 1st class&mdash, empty chamber (13 objects), 2nd class&mdash, fragments of combs containing brood sick with varroosis (19 objects), and 3rd class&mdash, fragments of combs containing healthy sealed brood (10 objects). The examination of a single object lasted 20 min, consisting of the exposure phase (10 min) and the sensor regeneration phase (10 min). The k-th nearest neighbors algorithm (kNN)&mdash, with default settings in RSES tool&mdash, was successfully used as the basic classifier. The basis of the analysis was the sensor reading value in 270 s with baseline correction. The multi-sensor MCA-8 gas sensor signal recorder has proved to be an effective tool in distinguishing between brood suffering from varroosis and healthy brood. The five-time cross-validation 2 test (5 &times, CV2 test) showed a global accuracy of 0.832 and a balanced accuracy of 0.834. Positive rate of the sick brood class was 0.92. In order to check the overall effectiveness of baseline correction in the examined context, we have carried out additional series of experiments&mdash, in multiple Monte Carlo Cross Validation model&mdash, using a set of classifiers with different metrics. We have tested a few variants of the kNN method, the Na&iuml, ve Bayes classifier, and the weighted voting classifier. We have verified with statistical tests the thesis that the baseline correction significantly improves the level of classification. We also confirmed that it is enough to use the TGS2603 sensor in the examined context.

The aim of this study was to examine how different methods of varroa treatment affect the condition of honey bee colonies. There were four groups of bee colonies formed, with 25 colonies per group:...

Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) is an environmental threat on a global scale due to the irreplaceable role of bees in crop pollination. Varroa destructor (V.d.), a parasite that attacks honeybee colonies, is one of the primary causes of honey bee population decline and the most serious threat to the beekeeping sector. This work demonstrates the possibility of quantitatively determining bee colony infestation by V.d. using gas sensing. The results are based on analysing the experimental data acquired for eighteen bee colonies in field conditions. Their infestation rate was in the 0 to 24.76% range. The experimental data consisted of measurements of beehive air with a semiconductor gas sensor array and the results of bee colony V.d. infestation assessment using a flotation method. The two kinds of data were collected in parallel. Partial Least Square regression was applied to identify the relationship between the highly multivariate measurement data provided by the gas sensor array and the V.d. infestation rate. The quality of the developed quantitative models was very high, as demonstrated by the coefficient of determination exceeding R2 = 0.99. Moreover, the prediction error was

Most Varroa induced colony losses occur during the autumn or winter season as a consequence of an elevated Varroa infestation level and an insufficient health status of the adult bees. Even with an initial low Varroa infestation in early spring, critical mite and virus infection levels can be reached before winter if colonies continuously rear brood throughout the whole season. To overcome this challenge, beekeepers can artificially interrupt brood production by suitable management procedures, depending on their type of beekeeping operation. To assess their efficacy, associated workload, and impact on colony development, different methods for brood interruption (queen caging with the combination of oxalic acid treatment, total brood removal, trapping comb technique) were tested during two seasons in 11 locations on 370 colonies in 10 European countries. A protocol was developed to standardize the methods’ application across different environmental conditions. The efficacy of queen caging depended on the mode of oxalic acid application and ranged from 48.16% to 89.57% mite removal. The highest efficacies were achieved with trickling a 4.2% solution (89.57%) and with the sublimation of 2 g of oxalic acid (average of 88.25%) in the broodless period. The efficacy of the purely biotechnical, chemical-free trapping comb and brood removal methods did not differ significantly from the queen caging groups. We conclude that a proper application of one of the described brood interruption methods can significantly contribute to an efficient Varroa control and to the production of honey bee products meeting the highest quality and food- safety standards.

Imidacloprid (IMD) may affect proteolysis, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and global DNA methylation in honeybees. Queens, drones, and workers aged 1 or 20 days were exposed (free-flying colonies) to IMD (5 ppb and 200 ppb) in their diet. As a result, the colony depopulation did not occurred. IMD disturbed hemolymph/cuticle proteolysis; deactivated most of the cuticle protease inhibitors, activated hemolymph thiol and metal proteases and cuticle thiol proteases; downregulated ALP, ALT, AST; and increased DNA methylation in a caste- and age-dependent manner. The response in queens and workers differed, possibly due to eusocial evolution. Higher IMD dose had greater effects. The responses of ALP, ALT, AST, and DNA may reflect acceleration of biochemical senescence and epigenetic adaptation to IMD. All these biochemical side effects may lead to colony depopulation during future biotic/abiotic stress.

The study focused on a method of detection for bee colony infestation with the Varroa destructor mite, based on the measurements of the chemical properties of beehive air. The efficient detection of varroosis was demonstrated. This method of detection is based on a semiconductor gas sensor array and classification module. The efficiency of detection was characterized by the true positive rate (TPR) and true negative rate (TNR). Several factors influencing the performance of the method were determined. They were: (1) the number and kind of sensors, (2) the classifier, (3) the group of bee colonies, and (4) the balance of the classification data set. Gas sensor array outperformed single sensors. It should include at least four sensors. Better results of detection were attained with a support vector machine (SVM) as compared with the k-nearest neighbors (k-NN) algorithm. The selection of bee colonies was important. TPR and TNR differed by several percent for the two examined groups of colonies. The balance of the classification data was crucial. The average classification results were, for the balanced data set: TPR = 0.93 and TNR = 0.95, and for the imbalanced data set: TP = 0.95 and FP = 0.53. The selection of bee colonies and the balance of classification data set have to be controlled in order to attain high performance of the proposed detection method.

The giant honey bees Apis dorsata and Apis laboriosa construct nests of different shapes and sizes. A method was required to compare the shapes and sizes of these nests. We developed a nest shape index (NSI). It presents the ratio of the dimension of the upper horizontal attachment of the nest base (B), to the vertical dimension of the nest (V); NSI = B/V. We examined the NSI of A. dorsata nests. The results varied; NSI = 0.6–4.7. The shape of nests under a sloped support is characterized by the inclination index (II). This index presents the ratio of the vertical dimension of the nest (V) to the dimension perpendicular to the sloped base (P). The inclination index of the nests observed by us, varied; II = 1.2–3.0. The mean shape of A. laboriosa was NSI = 0.96. The difference between the NSI of A. dorsata and A. laboriosa is due to environmental conditions. These indexes make it possible to compare the shapes of different sized nests when real nests were measured or from measurement of nests in photograph...

Over a 37-year period, we observed 1011 active bee nests and abandoned combs of Apis dorsata and Apis laboriosa in Nepal, India, the Philippines, and Bhutan. This article focuses on the reasons for the different shapes of the nests. We discovered that differing ambient conditions were the reasons for the following three shapes of symmetrical nests: vertical semi-ellipse, semicircle, and the horizontal semi-ellipse. We noted that asymmetrical nests were constructed when there was lack of space to extend the comb equally in both external directions. An asymmetrical nest also appeared when remnants of a previous comb remained on one edge of the nest. Convex nests were constructed to avoid excess sun exposure. Concave nests appeared as a result of low temperatures during the night and part of the day (Nepal). An L-shape nest was constructed when there was lack of space available to extend the nest in a straight direction. The shape of the nests also determines the way the combs fall.

The effect of sublethal doses of imidacloprid on protein content and activity of proteases on honey bees was analyzed. The study was conducted in three experimental groups: colonies from groups BE-5 and BE-200 were contaminated with 5 and 200 ppb of imidacloprid, respectively, via their food supply (syrup and pollen), while group BE was used as control (untreated). Bee samples were collected 3 and 10 weeks after feeding started. Protein concentration in bee tissue extracts was analyzed with reference: (a) to the dose of imidacloprid; and (b) duration of exposure to the chemical. The average quantity of protein content was significantly higher at the 3-week interval than in the 10-week interval and the bees from control colonies (BE) had significantly higher protein contents than contaminated bees (BE-5 and BE-200), even 3 weeks after feeding with imidacloprid started. Similarly, the activity of proteolytic enzymes (proteases) was found to be dependent on the dose of imidacloprid used, compared to bees fro...

Bearing in mind that there is no effective medication to control nosemosis, the authors assessed the usefulness of Acid Pla Tan Liquid [AP] and Efektywne Mikroorganizmy [EM] in the management of this disease in bees. Prior to field tests, we carried out laboratory examinations for the toxicity of the preparations in cages with bees, and then on colonies infected with Nosema spp. The evaluation of the effectiveness of the preparations was carried out on 36 colonies infected with nosemosis. In bees administered syrup containing the tested preparations at concentrations: 2ml, 1ml, 0.5ml, 0.25ml, and 0.125ml per 1 l, we did not observe abnormal behaviors or workers’ deaths. Bees in complete colonies with therapeutic syrup containing AP administered 3 times at a dose of 1 ml/1 l, and with EM at a dose of 2 ml/1 l behaved similarly. Worker bees from these colonies left the hive in a usual manner to fly for forage, brought pollen, found their way back home accurately, young bees emerged from their cells, the queen laid eggs, and young bees raised brood. After 15 days from the completion of the treatment, we found out that AP eliminated Nosema spp. infection at 100.0%, and EM at 42.9%. The autumn control triple administration of AP at a dose of 1 ml/1 l, and EM at a dose of 2 ml/1 l, to colonies with different intensity of Nosema spp. infection proves a higher effectiveness of AP (75%) than EM (58.3%). A mean of a significantly lower number of spores was observed in colonies from group AP as compared both to the control group and group EM, in which the number of spores was nevertheless significantly lower than in the control group.

International audience; AbstractOxidative stress is defined as a disturbance in the balance between the production of reactive oxygen species and antioxidant defences. We measured total antioxidant capacity (TAC) in honeybee haemolymph and seminal plasma and analysed TAC of haemolymph in relation to age and exposure to pesticide. TAC of haemolymph increased with age of bees (1.18 vs 1.97 mM of (±)-6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchromane-2-carboxylic acid (Trolox) for 1- and 30-day-old bees, respectively, P ≤ 0.05). Exposure to imidacloprid (IMD) affected TAC of haemolymph of 1-day-old but not 30-day-old honeybees. TAC in haemolymph of 1-day-old bees was lower in treatments with the addition of 5 and 200 ppb IMD (1.57–1.46 mM of Trolox in treated bees compared with 2.37 mM of Trolox in controls; P ≤ 0.05). In conclusion, antioxidant protection of honeybees seems to be related to age and may be disturbed by exposure to IMD. Older bees with higher antioxidant protection seem to be less susceptible to IMD toxicity. The toxic effect of pesticide seems to be particularly dangerous in early life stages of honeybees.

International audience; AbstractThe objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of chronical exposure of honeybee drones to environmental (5 ppb) and non-environmental concentration (200 ppb) of imidacloprid (IMD) on sperm concentration, motility, viability, and mitochondrial membrane potential measured in semen obtained from 180 drones originating from 18 colonies. The results demonstrate that IMD exposure did not affect sperm concentration; however, there were significant differences in concentration within colonies. IMD exposure was associated with reductions in sperm motility, which also varied within colonies. Statistically significant interactions between IMD exposure and colony were found for active mitochondria and sperm viability. Our results strongly suggest that neonicotinoids can negatively affect honeybee drone sperm quality. It is important to emphasize that IMD actions can be strongly modulated according to the colony.

Summary Here we cover a wide range of methods currently in use and recommended in modern queen rearing, selection and breeding. The recommendations are meant to equally serve as standards for both scientific and practical beekeeping purposes. The basic conditions and different management techniques for queen rearing are described, including recommendations for suitable technical equipment. As the success of breeding programmes strongly depends on the selective mating of queens, a subchapter is dedicated to the management and quality control of mating stations. Recommendations for the handling and quality control of queens complete the queen rearing section. The improvement of colony traits usually depends on a comparative testing of colonies. Standardized recommendations for the organization of performance tests and the measurement of the most common selection characters are presented. Statistical methods and data preconditions for the estimation of breeding values which integrate pedigree and performance data from as many colonies as possible are described as the most efficient selection method for large populations. Alternative breeding programmes for small populations or certain scientific questions are briefly mentioned, including also an overview of the young and fast developing field of molecular selection tools. Because the subject of queen rearing and selection is too large to be covered within this paper, plenty of references are given to facilitate comprehensive studies.

Oryginalną pszczołą utrzymywaną w Nepalu w ulach jest pszczoła wschodnia Apis cerana. Niedawno wprowadzono do Nepalu, egzotyczną dla tego kraju pszczołę Apis mellifera. Pszczoła ta produkuje więcej miodu niż pszczoła wschodnia. Jednakowoż właściwą gospodarkę pasieczną dla tej pszczoły w Nepalu trzeba dopiero opracować. Dlatego przeprowadzono badania mające wskazać, jaka metoda gospodarki zapewnia maksymalne korzyści dla pszczelarzy. W ciągu trzech lat badano jak początkowa siła rodziny oraz sposób dodawania nadstawek wpływa na cechy biologiczne i produkcję miodu. Badano również korzyści finansowe. Rodziny okrywające początkowo 5, 10 lub 20 plastrów (Pl) albo nie otrzymywały nadstawki albo dodawano im pół nadstawkę lub całą nadstawkę z plastrami. Stwierdziliśmy, że rodziny o początkowej sile 5, 10 lub 20 Pl posiadały w ciągu sezonu średnio odpowiednio 10,9, 14,9 i 19,4 tysięcy komórek czerwiu (Tab. 1). Średnia liczba zbieraczek wylatujących w ciągu 5 min z ula rodzin o początkowej sile 5, 10 i 20 Pl wynosiła odpowiednio 207, 349, 591 (Tab. 2). Najsłabsze rodziny o początk owej sile 5 Pl bez nadstawki wyprodukowały średnio 30,1 kg miodu. Rodziny średniej siły okrywające początkowo 10 Pl bez nadstawki, z półnadstawką i pełną nadstawką wyprodukowały średnio odpowiednio 34,1, 47,5 i 62,2 kg miodu. Natomiast najsilniejsze rodziny o początkowej sile 20 Pl z półnadstawką i pełną nadstawką wyprodukowały odpowiednio 68,2 i 74,5 kg miodu (Tab. 3). Tak więc najsilniejsze rodziny okrywające początkowo 20 Pl z pełną nadstawką wyprodukowały 2,5 raza więcej miodu niż rodziny o początkowej sile 5 Pl bez nadstawki. Jednak, gdy obliczono stosunek dochodu do kosztów produkcji, to okazało się, że był on najkorzystniejszy (1,52: 1) dla miodu wyprodukowanego przez rodziny o początkowej sile 10 Pl z pełną nadstawką (Tab. 4). Tak więc gospodarka pasieczna z pszczołą miodną A. mellifera, z rodzinami o początkowej sile 10 Pl z pełną nadstawką jest zalecana dla pszczelarzy w południowym Nepalu. Ekonomiczny aspekt oceny powyższych metod gospodarki pasiecznej ma również globalne znaczenie.

Swarming and Migration ofApis dorsataandApis laboriosaHoney Bees in India, Nepal and BhutanThe migratory open air nestingApis dorsataandApis laboriosahoneybees migrate at least twice a year. DNA genotyping showed that the same swarms return to their natal nesting sites. We examined 23 nesting sites in Nepal, India and Bhutan, on which 587 colonies ofA. dorsataandA. laboriosanested. The results showed that the frequency of the periodic mass flights (PMF) performed by the colonies is a good indicator of the status of current colony performance. During the swarming period, both,A. dorsataandA. laboriosaissue several swarms. In some colonies, so many bees swarmed out, that those remaining in the maternal colonies did not cover the combs. After the rest of the brood emerged, all the bees of such colonies abscond during the swarming period. Thus, absconding appeared in results of total out swarming. The swarms do not migrate directly to the seasonal alternative nesting sites, but establish new colonies in the areas around. After environmental conditions deteriorate, all the bees with their queens abscond and migrate to alternate seasonal nesting sites. The next season, the swarms do not return to their original reproductive natal sites, but to those sites they occupied the previous season lately, where from they absconded.

Summary Honey bee queens mate with many males. The resulting genotypic diversity appears to enhance fitness of queenright colonies (those colonies with a reproductive queen present) which is difficult to measure, because measures of long-term fitness include successful matings of produced male sexuals (drones) and number of surviving swarms. The fitness of queenless colonies is, however, limited to worker-produced adult drones until natural colony death. Here we test the impact of genotypic diversity on fitness of queenless honey bee colonies, which were headed by queens inseminated with one, 10 and 20 drones or naturally mated. The data show that genetically diverse queenless colonies (20 subfamilies per colony) produced fewer adult drones, had a delayed onset of worker-derived drone flight activity, and a lower efficacy in drone production / per day colony life span compared to all other groups. Our data suggest that genotypic diversity may reduce fitness of queenless honey bee colonies, probably due to reproductive conflicts among subfamilies after queenloss.

Summary Apis laboriosa and Apis dorsata are closely related migratory open-air nesting bees which nest at mountain cliffs. It is not known why they select certain cliffs over others. We examined 16 nesting cliffs, at which 258 A. laboriosa colonies nested. The studies were conducted in Nepal in 1998 and 1999 and in Bhutan in 2008. Most cliffs are of a grey to black colour, but all A. laboriosa bees selected as nesting sites light -coloured unweathered cliffs. The light cliffs appear as a result of water erosion, and the unweathered cleared surface assures strong fixation of the combs to the rock. This way the nest will not tear away from the cliff overhangs. Near some nests, a white area is present on the vertical wall of the cliff. This is the surface cleared by bees, which previously nested here. It is possible to spot actual or potential nesting cliffs of these bees from far away.

SummarySelection for high-pollen (HP) and low-pollen (LP) yield was performed in Apis mellifera carnica for four generations using pollen traps. HP and LP yields were compared with an unselected control (C) line. Our procedure provided a constant inflow of new genes from the C line to the HP and LP lines that is useful in small apiaries. A significant (p < 0.01), asymmetrical (greater in HP), direct response to selection was observed. Correlated responses were also detected in: the pollen forager ratio (proportion of the pollen forager number to the total forager number) and pollen forager number in the HP line; and single-pollen load weight, honey yield, stored pollen area, and brood area in the LP line. No response was found in the total forager number. Correlated selection pressures were detected in the pollen forager ratio (in HP and LP), the stored pollen area (mostly in LP), and the brood area (slight in LP). Taken together, these observations indicate that pollen yield is determined by a small numb...

Defense behavior of three, free living giant (Megapis) honey bee subspecies, Apis laboriosa, A. dorsata dorsata and A. dorsata breviligula, was compared. Disturbed worker bees responded with characteristic dorso-ventral defense body twisting (DBT). Workers of A. laboriosa twisted the thorax by 55°, and the two other A. dorsata subspecies by about 10° more. A. laboriosa workers raised the tip of the abdomen by 90° and workers of the two other bee subspecies by about 20° higher. Differences in those traits were highly significant between A. laboriosa and both A. dorsata subspecies, but were not significant between those two subspecies. The whole cycle of DBT was the most vigorous in A. d. breviligula (0.11 s), and it was twice as vigorous as in A. d. dorsata (0.26 s) and trice as in A. laboriosa (0.32 s). A. laboriosa twisted the body together with wings folded over the abdomen, while the two A. dorsata subspecies raised the abdomen between spread wings. This supports the opinion to treat A. laboriosa as a separate species.

The variability of Apis mellifera mellifera in Eastern Europe was investigated with a morphometric analysis of 136 samples from Poland, Belarus and the Ukraine. Samples from the northern part of this area were unambiguously classified as A. m. mellifera, but the proportion of uncertain allocations increased towards the south, where some samples were classified as hybrids between A. m. mellifera and subspecies of the lineages C and O. In the Ukraine, one third of the samples were classified as A. m. mellifera, one third as A. m. macedonica, and one third as hybrids. Our results confirm earlier reports of a large hybrid zone in Poland and the Ukraine, but they unexpectedly also show a strong influence of the morphological O lineage. However, the true extension of this hybrid zone currently remains unknown. The bees of northeastern Belarus showed an extreme position on the border of the A. m. mellifera cluster, potentially indicating ecotypic variation within A. m. mellifera in the northeast of its range.

SummaryApis dorsata drones perform dusk mass flights (DMF's) shortly after sunset. Bees performing DMF's were caught near the nests with insect nets. Presence of drones within captured bees was determined and the colour of worker bees was examined to classify them in age-colour categories. A total of 15,160 individual bees were examined. It was found that in the spring, drones were practically absent in arriving swarms. The percentage of drones, which participated in dusk mass flights, increased to 19% after the colonies stayed at the site for six weeks. A correlation was found between the duration of time the colonies stayed at the place and the percentage of drones, which performed those flights. In autumn, when environmental conditions deteriorated and the colonies migrated, drones were absent practically in all the colonies at the site. Of 4,450 bees captured in autumn, only 2 drones were found during 30 DMF's performed by 7 colonies. Thus, worker bees performed ‘drone’ DMF's despite the absence of dr...

Les ouvrieres d'Apis laboriosa et Apis dorsata presentes dans le rideau qui couvre le rayon du nid executent un battement dorso-ventral de l'abodomen (AF), qui semble jouer un role important dans la vie des colonies. Ce pourrait par exemple etre un signal pour les abeilles a l'interieur du nid leur indiquant le besoin de chauffer. Nous avons etudie si la temperature ambiante (t a ) ou la temperature de la surface du nid (t c ) etait correlee au pourcentage d'abeilles qui executaient un battement de l'abdomen (%AF). Deux nids d'A. dorsata breviligula ont ete observes du 1 er au 6 mars 2004 dans la region de Los Banos, Philippines. L'activite des abeilles a la surface du rideau t a a ete enregistree avec une camera video a 1 m de distance et les temperatures t a et t c avec un thermometre electronique. Parmi les 210 enregistrements, 1260 abeilles ont ete examinees, dont 508 executaient un AF. La figure 1 montre que lorsque t a est egale ou superieure a 35 °C, t c est inferieure a t a mais lorsque t a est inferieure ou egale a 33 °C, t c est alors superieure a t a . Lorsque t a et t c sont toutes deux au-dessus de 31 °C, les ouvrieres n'executent pas d'AF. En-dessous de cette temperature, on observe pourtant le comportement. Lorsque la temperature chute, le pourcentage d'AF augmente. Le tableau I donne la correlation (r) durant 3 j entre %AF et t a d'une part et %AF et t c d'autre part, ainsi que les correlations partielles. Celles-ci sont environ 4 fois plus fortes pour %AF et t c que pour %AF et t a . Cela indique que la temperature du rideau a une influence plus grande que la temperature ambiante sur le pourcentage d'abeilles qui executent un AF et cela corrobore l'hypothese de Woyke et al. (2004) selon laquelle les ouvrieres qui executent un AF reagissent plutot a la temperature autour d'elles a la surface du rideau qu'a la temperature ambiante.

SUMMARYThe investigations were conducted at Bangalore, India. A total of 627 periodic mass flights (PMFs) were observed during 10 successive days from 26 colonies of Apis dorsata at a polytechnic building site and 82 colonies at a banyan tree site at the Agricultural University 15 km away. PMF activities performed by particular A. dorsata populations were similar in successive days at a particular site. However, at the polytechnic site, where favourable environmental conditions prevailed, 84.3% of colonies performed 2.3 PMFs per colony per day, while at the banyan tree site, with less favourable conditions, only 11.3% of colonies performed 0.11 flights. We suggest that PMF activities depend in part upon the amount of unsealed brood. Individual colonies performed 0–5 PMFs in successive days. Low numbers of 1–2 PMF per day were preceded by high numbers of 4–5 flights the following day. Similarly, PMFs of low intensity were followed by flights of high intensity. However, two- or three-day cycles of similar a...

SUMMARYBee colonies reproduce by colony division during swarming. In colonies infested by the parasitic mite, Varroa destructor, colony division will at the same time split the mite population between the swarms and the remaining parent colonies. The present investigation compares infestation of swarms with that of parent colonies. We found that an average of 25 ± 9% of mites left the colonies with natural swarms, while 75 ± 9% remained in parent colonies of which 39 ± 11% were on bees and 36 ± 10% were within sealed brood cells. The relative swarm infestation did not differ from that of the remaining parent colony in this study, but very low proportions of mites within sealed worker brood and a clear negative correlation to the proportion of mites in sealed brood strongly suggest that swarm infestation is asymmetric and lower than that of the remaining colonies.

The cavity-nesting Apis mellifera and Apis cerana bees detect, uncap, and remove diseased brood. The hygiene behaviour of open-air-nesting bees Apis dorsata and Apis laboriosa was investigated in India and Nepal. Sealed A. dorsata pupae were pin-killed or deep-frozen. The workers removed 73 or 37% of damaged pin-killed pupae depending on the diameter of the pins, and only 7% of the frozen undamaged pupae. Migrating A. dorsata and A. laboriosa left unopened the sealed brood in deserted combs. Thus, A. dorsata and A. laboriosa do not open undamaged cells with dead brood. This behaviour is a more efficient mechanism in preventing the spread of diseases and parasitic mites than uncapping and removing dead pupae by A. mellifera and A. cerana. It may be beneficial for migrating A. dorsata and A. laboriosa to temporarily disuse part of the comb cells in exchange for arresting the mites there and thus reducing the increase of their population.

SUMMARYThis article reports observations conducted in Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal, during March-April and October—December 1999. 14 continuous observations were carried out from 08:00 h to 19:00 h on 6 to 48 nests of Apis dorsata in different seasonal conditions. Detailed observations of 410 periodic mass flights (PMFs) were recorded. During the day, A. dorsata workers made 0–6 PMFs, each of which lasted about 5 min. Worker bees from 52% to 100% of colonies performed PMFs within a day. About 55% of colonies performed a second PMF and about 25% a third flight. Percentage of colonies performing PMFs and the number of PMF activities per colony were highest when the largest amount of brood was present in colonies. In cool conditions (average temp. 20.9 °C), PMF activity lasted between 4 and 7 h and peaked around noontime. In warm conditions (average 26–28 °C), the duration of this activity extended up to 9 h with no PMFs at noon. In hot conditions (average 33.6 °C), the duration of PMF activities was extended to 1...

La biologie d'Apis laboriosa F. Smith est peu connue ; un seul vol en masse periodique (VMP) a ete mentionne pour ces abeilles. Nous avons donc recherche si ces VMP etaient des phenomenes exceptionnels ou s'ils se produisaient regulierement chez A. laboriosa. Les recherches ont ete menees au Nepal dans la chaine de I' Himalaya. Le premier site, une falaise comportant 16 nids d'Apis laboriosa, etait situe sur les pentes de l'Annapurna et le second, avec 53 nids, etait pres de Kodari sur un col de la frontiere tibetaine. On a enregistre au total 120 VMP effectues par les ouvrieres d'Apis laboriosa sur une periode de huit jours. L'activite de VMP durait de trois a cinq minutes, entre 10:00 h et 15:00 h. Pendant les conditions meteorologiques convenables les ouvrieres de 50 a 81 % des colonies ont effectue des VMP. Les ouvrieres de differents nids accomplissaient leur VMP a des periodes de la meme journee separees de plusieurs heures. Les ouvrieres de la meme colonie les accomplissaient a une heure variable au cours de jours successifs. Alors que les ouvrieres de certaines colonies n'ont effectue aucun VMP durant plusieurs jours, d'autres en ont effectue deux a trois par jour. Les ouvrieres accomplissant deux VMP par jour demarraient leur premier vol a la meme heure, ou meme plus tard, que celles qui n'en effectuaient qu'un seul. On n'a pas trouve de correlation entre la temperature de l'air a des heures donnees de la journee et le nombre de VMP. L'observation suggere que les conditions microclimatiques a la surface du rideau d'abeilles qui protege le nid ne sont pas les facteurs qui determinent l'heure des VMP. Nous pensons que les conditions internes de la colonie, comme la quantite de couvain ou le nombre de jeunes abeilles, sont des facteurs qui determinent l'activite de VMP. Les resultats montrent que chez A. laboriosa les VMP ne sont pas exceptionnels mais des phenomenes normaux qui se produisent par jours ensoleilles.

The hygienic behaviour of eight A. florea honey bee colonies was investigated in Thailand. Sealed brood was deep frozen or killed using entomological pins. The pins were 0.2 or 0.7 mm in diameter. The removal of killed brood by the bees was checked in intervals ranged from 24 to 60 h after it had been presented to the colonies. Almost eighty nine (89%) of the freeze-killed brood was removed by the bees within 24 h after being introduced into the combs, while 95% of the pin-killed brood was removed within 48 h after introduction. Thus, the A. florae colonies could be recognized as hygienic honey bees.

International audience; Honey bee colonies exhibit a wide range of variation in their behaviour, depending on their genetic origin and environmental factors. The COLOSS Genotype-Environment Interactions Experiment gave us the opportunity to investigate the phenotypic expression of the swarming, defensive and hygienic behaviour of 16 genotypes from five different honey bee subspecies in various environmental conditions. In 2010 and 2011, a total of 621 colonies were monitored and tested according to a standard protocol for estimation of expression of these three behavioural traits. The factors: year, genotype, location, origin (local vs. non-local) and season (only for hygienic behaviour) were considered in statistical analyses to estimate their effect on expression of these behaviours. The general outcome of our study is that genotype and location have a significant effect on the analysed traits. For all characters, the variability among locations was higher than the variability among genotypes. We also detected significant variability between the genotypes from different subspecies, generally confirming their known characteristics, although great variability within subspecies was noticed. Defensive and swarming behaviour were each positively correlated across the two years, confirming genetic control of these characters. Defensive behaviour was lower in colonies of local origin, and was negatively correlated with hygienic behaviour. Hygienic behaviour was strongly influenced by the season in which the test was performed. The results from our study demonstrate that there is great behavioural variation among different subspecies and strains. Sustainable protection of local genotypes can be promoted by combining conservation efforts with selection and breeding to improve the appreciation by beekeepers of native stock.

The term “quality” in relation to queens and drones refers to certain quantitative physical and/or behavioural characters. It is generally believed that a high quality queen should have the following physical characteristics: high live weight ; high number of ovarioles ; large size of spermatheca ; high number of spermatozoa in spermatheca ; and be free from diseases and pests. It is, however, also known that the performance of a honey bee colony is the result of its queen’s function as well as of that of the drones that mated with her. These two approaches are often considered together and give a general picture of the queen production technique and selection. Here we describe the most common and well known anatomical, physiological, behavioural and performance characters related to the queens, as measured in different European countries: the live weight of the virgin queen (Bulgaria) ; the live weight of the laying queen (Bulgaria, Italy) ; the diameter and volume of spermatheca (Bulgaria, Greece, Slovenia) ; the number of ovarioles (Greece, Italy, Slovenia) ; the weight of ovaries (Slovenia) ; the number of spermatozoa in spermatheca (Italy, Poland, Slovenia) ; the brood pattern (Bulgaria, Greece) ; the egg laying ability / fecundity (Bulgaria) ; the brood production (Croatia, Serbia) ; the colony population development (Croatia, Serbia, Slovakia) ; the honey production (Croatia, Denmark, Serbia, Slovakia) ; the hygienic behaviour (Croatia, Denmark, Serbia, Slovakia) ; the defence behaviour (Croatia) ; the calmness / sitting on the comb (Croatia, Denmark) ; and swarming (Croatia, Denmark). The data presented fit well with the findings of the same characters in the literature, and in general they support the argument for the term “quality characters”. Especially for the weight of the queen, the number of ovarioles, the volume of the spermatheca and the number of spermatozoa, data per country proved its own accuracy by repetition through the years. We also report that when instrumentally inseminated queens are kept under mass production conditions (in small cages in queen banks and with low number of attendants) they can transfer the semen to their spermatheca and clear their oviducts more efficiently when they have been inseminated with small amounts of semen in two or three sequences (but not four), compared to those inseminated with the same amount of semen at once (Poland). Furthermore, we had an inside view of the sanitary conditions of the colony: a. through the health status of the queen (nosema plus virus analysis) (Slovenia) ; and b. evaluating the nosema load of worker bees (Denmark) and of the queens (Greece). This is the first step to summarize this type of diverse data for such an important issue. The knowledge acquired can be used to fill in the existing gaps in the breeding or queen evaluation systems of each country in order to facilitate standardization of methodology for comparable results.

International audience; Diseases are known to be one of the major contributors to colony losses. Within a Europe-wide experiment on genotype - environment interactions, an initial 621 colonies were set up and maintained from 2009 to 2012. The colonies were monitored to investigate the occurrence and levels of key pathogens. These included the mite Varroa destructor (mites per 10 g bees), Nosema spp. (spore loads and species determination), and viruses (presence/absence of acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV) and deformed wing virus (DWV)). Data from 2010 to the spring of 2011 are analysed in relation to the parameters: genotype, environment, and origin (local vs. non-local) of the colonies in the experiment. The relative importance of different pathogens as indicators of colony death within the experiment is compared. In addition, pathogen occurrence rates across the geographic locations are described.