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Bile duct injury (BDI) is a dangerous complication of cholecystectomy, with significant postoperative sequelae for the patient in terms of morbidity, mortality, and long-term quality of life. BDIs have an estimated incidence of 0.4–1.5%, but considering the number of cholecystectomies performed worldwide, mostly by laparoscopy, surgeons must be prepared to manage this surgical challenge. Most BDIs are recognized either during the procedure or in the immediate postoperative period. However, some BDIs may be discovered later during the postoperative period, and this may translate to delayed or inappropriate treatments. Providing a specific diagnosis and a precise description of the BDI will expedite the decision-making process and increase the chance of treatment success. Subsequently, the choice and timing of the appropriate reconstructive strategy have a critical role in long-term prognosis. Currently, a wide spectrum of multidisciplinary interventions with different degrees of invasiveness is indicated for BDI management. These World Society of Emergency Surgery (WSES) guidelines have been produced following an exhaustive review of the current literature and an international expert panel discussion with the aim of providing evidence-based recommendations to facilitate and standardize the detection and management of BDIs during cholecystectomy. In particular, the 2020 WSES guidelines cover the following key aspects: (1) strategies to minimize the risk of BDI during cholecystectomy; (2) BDI rates in general surgery units and review of surgical practice; (3) how to classify, stage, and report BDI once detected; (4) how to manage an intraoperatively detected BDI; (5) indications for antibiotic treatment; (6) indications for clinical, biochemical, and imaging investigations for suspected BDI; and (7) how to manage a postoperatively detected BDI. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13017-021-00369-w.

The elderly population typically referred to individuals over the age of 65 represent a relatively small percentage of the overall population but a large portion of hospitalized patients. Several scoring systems have been developed to help objectify criteria for admission to the intensive care unit as well as predict outcomes. Physiologic and anatomic changes that occur in the elderly virtually affect every organ system in the geriatric patient and it is important that the intensivist understand and navigate these for successful outcomes. Communication with patients families, often in multi disciplinary manor is key to establish trust and will help educate families during these difficult times. Several tools have been developed to help family cope and understand decisions they will be faced with during the ICU admission of their elderly loved ones.

Background and aims Acute appendicitis (AA) is among the most common causes of acute abdominal pain. Diagnosis of AA is still challenging and some controversies on its management are still present among different settings and practice patterns worldwide. In July 2015, the World Society of Emergency Surgery (WSES) organized in Jerusalem the first consensus conference on the diagnosis and treatment of AA in adult patients with the intention of producing evidence-based guidelines. An updated consensus conference took place in Nijemegen in June 2019 and the guidelines have now been updated in order to provide evidence-based statements and recommendations in keeping with varying clinical practice: use of clinical scores and imaging in diagnosing AA, indications and timing for surgery, use of non-operative management and antibiotics, laparoscopy and surgical techniques, intra-operative scoring, and peri-operative antibiotic therapy. Methods This executive manuscript summarizes the WSES guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of AA. Literature search has been updated up to 2019 and statements and recommendations have been developed according to the GRADE methodology. The statements were voted, eventually modified, and finally approved by the participants to the consensus conference and by the board of co-authors, using a Delphi methodology for voting whenever there was controversy on a statement or a recommendation. Several tables highlighting the research topics and questions, search syntaxes, and the statements and the WSES evidence-based recommendations are provided. Finally, two different practical clinical algorithms are provided in the form of a flow chart for both adults and pediatric (< 16 years old) patients. Conclusions The 2020 WSES guidelines on AA aim to provide updated evidence-based statements and recommendations on each of the following topics: (1) diagnosis, (2) non-operative management for uncomplicated AA, (3) timing of appendectomy and in-hospital delay, (4) surgical treatment, (5) intra-operative grading of AA, (6) ,management of perforated AA with phlegmon or abscess, and (7) peri-operative antibiotic therapy.

Screening for blunt cerebrovascular injuries (BCVIs) in asymptomatic high-risk patients has become routine. To date, the length of this asymptomatic period has not been defined. Determining the time to stroke could impact therapy including earlier initiation of antithrombotics in multiply injured patients. The purpose of this study was to determine the time to stroke in patients with a BCVI-related stroke. We hypothesized that the majority of patients suffer stroke between 24 hours and 72 hours after injury.Patients with a BCVI-related stroke from January 2007 to January 2017 from 37 trauma centers were reviewed.During the 10-year study, 492 patients had a BCVI-related stroke; the majority were men (61%), with a median age of 39 years and ISS of 29. Stroke was present at admission in 182 patients (37%) and occurred during an Interventional Radiology procedure in six patients. In the remaining 304 patients, stroke was identified a median of 48 hours after admission: 53 hours in the 144 patients identified by neurologic symptoms and 42 hours in the 160 patients without a neurologic examination and an incidental stroke identified on imaging. Of those patients with neurologic symptoms, 88 (61%) had a stroke within 72 hours, whereas 56 had a stroke after 72 hours; there was a sequential decline in stroke occurrence over the first week. Of the 304 patients who had a stroke after admission, 64 patients (22%) were being treated with antithrombotics when the stroke occurred.The majority of patients suffer BCVI-related stroke in the first 72 hours after injury. Time to stroke can help inform clinicians about initiation of treatment in the multiply injured patient.Prognostic/Epidemiologic, level III.

Iatrogenic colonoscopy perforation (ICP) is a severe complication that can occur during both diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. Although 45–60% of ICPs are diagnosed by the endoscopist while performing the colonoscopy, many ICPs are not immediately recognized but are instead suspected on the basis of clinical signs and symptoms that occur after the endoscopic procedure. There are three main therapeutic options for ICPs: endoscopic repair, conservative therapy, and surgery. The therapeutic approach must vary based on the setting of the diagnosis (intra- or post-colonoscopy), the type of ICP, the characteristics and general status of the patient, the operator’s level of experience, and surgical device availability. Although ICPs have been the focus of numerous publications, no guidelines have been created to standardize the management of ICPs. The aim of this article is to present the World Society of Emergency Surgery (WSES) guidelines for the management of ICP, which are intended to be used as a tool to promote global standards of care in case of ICP. These guidelines are not meant to substitute providers’ clinical judgment for individual patients, and they may need to be modified based on the medical team’s level of experience and the availability of local resources.

Terrorist attacks, as a mechanism of injury, continue to be a worldwide challenge to trauma centers, resulting in tremendous and varied injury patterns often in large numbers of victims. While terrorists may use many different approaches to inflict injury, explosive devices, often homemade, have continued to be the prime weaponry for terror-related events. These attacks create mass-casualty emergencies and trigger unique pattern of injuries which require a detailed understanding by the treatment team in order to provide optimal care. Other commonly used injury mechanisms include gunshots and knives. Finally, blunt trauma in terror-related MCI may be caused by stoning and intentional road accidents (car ramming).

Surgical patients requiring intensive care unit [ICU] care originate from a variety of admitting primary services and may require critical care services at any time during their course of illness. This care spectrum can range from routine postoperative monitoring of complex cases to resuscitation to restore normal physiology and correct metabolic acidosis, hypothermia, and coagulopathy. This chapter will discuss admission and discharge criterion for acute care surgery patients in the ICU. Additional concepts to be discussed include the use of rapid response teams as an aid to ICU triage, ICU organization, frailty of patients in advanced age, clinical scoring systems, futility versus care that is appropriate for a given diagnosis, advanced directives, ICU economics, communication best practices, and family engagement. It is imperative that acute care surgeons practicing around the world, in hospital models with variable resources, understand these concepts to optimizing patient care.

Damage control resuscitation may lead to postoperative intra-abdominal hypertension or abdominal compartment syndrome. These conditions may result in a vicious, self-perpetuating cycle leading to severe physiologic derangements and multiorgan failure unless interrupted by abdominal (surgical or other) decompression. Further, in some clinical situations, the abdomen cannot be closed due to the visceral edema, the inability to control the compelling source of infection or the necessity to re-explore (as a "planned second-look" laparotomy) or complete previously initiated damage control procedures or in cases of abdominal wall disruption. The open abdomen in trauma and non-trauma patients has been proposed to be effective in preventing or treating deranged physiology in patients with severe injuries or critical illness when no other perceived options exist. Its use, however, remains controversial as it is resource consuming and represents a non-anatomic situation with the potential for severe adverse effects. Its use, therefore, should only be considered in patients who would most benefit from it. Abdominal fascia-to-fascia closure should be done as soon as the patient can physiologically tolerate it. All precautions to minimize complications should be implemented.

A position paper (PP) should establish a unified voice in areas where controversy occurs based upon multiple practices and/or therapeutic choices. Typically, a position paper should elucidate the knowledge gap, followed by an evidence-based review of options, leading to an “endorsed position.” A position paper should represent more than the opinion or consensus of the authors but should present current opinions and practices supported by the World Society of Emergency Surgery (WSES). Accordingly, position papers should require the approval of an expert group of WSES and in parallel be presented at an annual meeting prior to submission for publication. It is important that a unified approach for drafting of position papers be established and endorsed by WSES in order to establish credibility and prevent misunderstandings during a smooth transition to publication. The purpose of this article is to suggest a uniform process for the development of WSES guidelines.

Background Owing to parallel advances in health care and an aging population, geriatric injury has become an increasing burden to trauma systems, suggesting that specific clinical pathways may improve the care of this cohort. We created a dedicated Geriatric Trauma Institute, with multidisciplinary support, as a part of our existing trauma program, theorizing that the Geriatric Trauma Institute would promote quality care, reduce the length of stay, and reduce hospital charges. Methods We performed a retrospective analysis of the prospective database of our level 1 trauma center. Patients aged 65 years or older were identified over 12 months, representing 5 months prior and also after the implementation of the new program. Results The mean length of stay was reduced for admissions to a nontrauma vs geriatric trauma service (5.64 vs 4.43 days; P = .03), generating a charge reduction of 21.4% in only the first 5 months after program implementation. Conclusions Our preliminary findings, which require longer-term analysis, suggest that a dedicated geriatric trauma multidisciplinary system promotes quality patient care, improves throughput, and results in significant cost savings via reduced length of stay and concomitant hospital charges.

Contains fulltext : 175669.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Open Access) Intra-abdominal infections (IAIs) are common surgical emergencies and have been reported as major contributors to non-trauma deaths in the emergency departments worldwide. The cornerstones of effective treatment of IAIs are early recognition, adequate source control, and appropriate antimicrobial therapy. Prompt resuscitation of patients with ongoing sepsis is of utmost important. In hospitals worldwide, non-acceptance of, or lack of access to, accessible evidence-based practices and guidelines result in overall poorer outcome of patients suffering IAIs. The aim of this paper is to promote global standards of care in IAIs and update the 2013 WSES guidelines for management of intra-abdominal infections.

Acute mesenteric ischemia (AMI) is typically defined as a group of diseases characterized by an interruption of the blood supply to varying portions of the small intestine, leading to ischemia and secondary inflammatory changes. If untreated, this process will eventuate in life threatening intestinal necrosis. The incidence is low, estimated at 0.09–0.2% of all acute surgical admissions. Therefore, although the entity is an uncommon cause of abdominal pain, diligence is always required because if untreated, mortality has consistently been reported in the range of 50%. Early diagnosis and timely surgical intervention are the cornerstones of modern treatment and are essential to reduce the high mortality associated with this entity. The advent of endovascular approaches in parallel with modern imaging techniques may provide new options. Thus, we believe that a current position paper from World Society of Emergency Surgery (WSES) is warranted, in order to put forth the most recent and practical recommendations for diagnosis and treatment of AMI. This review will address the concepts of AMI with the aim of focusing on specific areas where early diagnosis and management hold the strongest potential for improving outcomes in this disease process. Some of the key points include the prompt use of CT angiography to establish the diagnosis, evaluation of the potential for revascularization to re-establish blood flow to ischemic bowel, resection of necrotic intestine, and use of damage control techniques when appropriate to allow for re-assessment of bowel viability prior to definitive anastomosis and abdominal closure.

Acute calculus cholecystitis is a very common disease with several area of uncertainty. The World Society of Emergency Surgery developed extensive guidelines in order to cover grey areas. The diagnostic criteria, the antimicrobial therapy, the evaluation of associated common bile duct stones, the identification of "high risk" patients, the surgical timing, the type of surgery, and the alternatives to surgery are discussed. Moreover the algorithm is proposed: as soon as diagnosis is made and after the evaluation of choledocholitiasis risk, laparoscopic cholecystectomy should be offered to all patients exception of those with high risk of morbidity or mortality. These Guidelines must be considered as an adjunctive tool for decision but they are not substitute of the clinical judgement for the individual patient.

Acute left sided colonic diverticulitis is one of the most common clinical conditions encountered by surgeons in acute setting. A World Society of Emergency Surgery (WSES) Consensus Conference on acute diverticulitis was held during the 3rd World Congress of the WSES in Jerusalem, Israel, on July 7th, 2015. During this consensus conference the guidelines for the management of acute left sided colonic diverticulitis in the emergency setting were presented and discussed. This document represents the executive summary of the final guidelines approved by the consensus conference.

Acute appendicitis (AA) is among the most common cause of acute abdominal pain. Diagnosis of AA is challenging; a variable combination of clinical signs and symptoms has been used together with laboratory findings in several scoring systems proposed for suggesting the probability of AA and the possible subsequent management pathway. The role of imaging in the diagnosis of AA is still debated, with variable use of US, CT and MRI in different settings worldwide. Up to date, comprehensive clinical guidelines for diagnosis and management of AA have never been issued. In July 2015, during the 3rd World Congress of the WSES, held in Jerusalem (Israel), a panel of experts including an Organizational Committee and Scientific Committee and Scientific Secretariat, participated to a Consensus Conference where eight panelists presented a number of statements developed for each of the eight main questions about diagnosis and management of AA. The statements were then voted, eventually modified and finally approved by the participants to The Consensus Conference and lately by the board of co-authors. The current paper is reporting the definitive Guidelines Statements on each of the following topics: 1) Diagnostic efficiency of clinical scoring systems, 2) Role of Imaging, 3) Non-operative treatment for uncomplicated appendicitis, 4) Timing of appendectomy and in-hospital delay, 5) Surgical treatment 6) Scoring systems for intra-operative grading of appendicitis and their clinical usefulness 7) Non-surgical treatment for complicated appendicitis: abscess or phlegmon 8) Pre-operative and post-operative antibiotics.

Intra-abdominal infections (IAIs) are common surgical emergencies and have been reported as major contributors to non-trauma deaths in the emergency departments worldwide. The cornerstones of effective treatment of IAIs are early recognition, adequate source control, and appropriate antimicrobial therapy. Prompt resuscitation of patients with ongoing sepsis is of utmost important. In hospitals worldwide, non-acceptance of, or lack of access to, accessible evidence-based practices and guidelines result in overall poorer outcome of patients suffering IAIs. The aim of this paper is to promote global standards of care in IAIs and update the 2013 WSES guidelines for management of intra-abdominal infections.

BACKGROUND: Massive transfusion (MTP) protocol design is hindered by lack of accurate assessment of coagulation. Rapid thrombelastography (r-TEG) provides point-of-care (POC) analysis of clot formation. We designed a prospective study to test the hypothesis that integrating TEG into our MTP would facilitate goal-directed therapy and provide equivalent outcomes compared to conventional coagulation testing. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: Thiry-four patients who received more than 6 units of red blood cells (RBCs)/6 hours who were admitted to our Level 1 trauma center after r-TEG implementation (TEG) were compared to 34 patients admitted prior to TEG implementation (Pre-TEG). Data are presented as mean ± SEM. RESULTS: Emergency department pre-TEG versus TEG shock, and coagulation indices, were not different: systolic blood pressure (94 mmHg vs.101 mmHg), temperature (35.3°C vs. 35.9°C), pH (7.16 vs. 7.11), base deficit (−13.0 vs. −14.7), lactate (6.5 vs. 8.1), international normalized ratio (INR; 1.59 vs. 1.83), and partial thromboplastin time (48.3 vs. 57.9). Although not significant, patients with Injury Severity Score range 26 to 35 were more frequent in the pre-TEG group. Fresh-frozen plasma (FFP) : RBCs, platelets : RBCs, and cryoprecipitate (cryo) : RBC ratios were not significantly different at 6 or 12 hours. INR at 6 hours did not discriminate between survivors and nonsurvivors (p = 0.10), whereas r-TEG “G” value was significantly associated with survival (p = 0.03), as was the maximum rate of thrombin generation (MRTG; mm/min) and total thrombin generation (TG; area under the curve) (p = 0.03 for both). Patients with MRTG of more than 9.2 received significantly less components of RBCs, FFP, and cryo (p = 0.048, p = 0.03, and p = 0.04, respectively). CONCLUSION: Goal-directed resuscitation via r-TEG appears useful for management of trauma-induced coagulopathy. Further experience with POC monitoring could result in more efficient management leading to a reduction of transfusion requirements.

Background Bedside percutaneous tracheostomy (BPT) is a cost-effective alternative to open tracheostomy. Small series have consistently documented minimal morbidity, but BPT has yet to be embraced as the standard of care. Because this has been our preferred technique in the surgical ICU for more than 20 years, we reviewed our experience to ascertain its safety. We hypothesize that BPT has acceptably minimal morbidity, even in high-risk patients. Study Design Patients undergoing BPT from January 1998 to June 2008 were reviewed. High-risk patients were defined as those with cervical collar or halo, cervical spine injuries, systemic heparinization, positive end-expiratory pressure >10 cm H 2 O or fraction of inspired oxygen > 50%. Results During the study period, 1,000 patients underwent BPT (74% men; mean ± SEM age 46 ± 0.6 years; 70% trauma). BPT was performed 8.9 ± 0.2 days (mean ± SEM) after admission. Patients remained ventilator dependent for an additional 9.7 ± 0.4 days (mean ± SEM). There were 482 (48%) patients undergoing BPT who were considered high-risk: 1 risk category, 273 patients; 2 risk categories, 139 patients; 3 risk categories, 56 patients; 4 risk categories, 12 patients; 5 risk categories, 2 patients. Complications occurred in 14 (1.4%) patients. Early complications included tracheostomy tube misplacement requiring revision (n = 4), bleeding requiring intervention (n = 2), infection (n = 1), and procedure failure requiring cricothyroidotomy (n = 1). Late complications included persistent stoma requiring operative closure (n = 4) and subglottic stenosis (n = 2). There were 6 complications (1.2%) in normal risk and 8 complications (1.7%) in high-risk patients. There were no deaths related to BPT. Conclusions BPT in the surgical intensive care unit is a safe procedure, even in high-risk patients. We believe BPT is the new gold standard for patients requiring tracheostomy for mechanical ventilation.

BACKGROUND: Recent enthusiasm for the use of iodinated contrast media and progressive adaption of modern imaging techniques suggests an increased risk of contrast-induced acute kidney injury (CIAKI) in trauma patients. We hypothesized that CIAKI incidence would be higher than that previously reported. METHODS: A 1-year retrospective review of our prospective database was performed. Low-osmolar, nonionic, iodinated intravascular (IV) contrast was used exclusively. CIAKI was defined as serum creatinine>0.5 mg/dL, or >25% increase from baseline within 72 hours of admission. The association between CIAKI and risk factors was explored. RESULTS: Of 3,775 patients, 1,184 (31.4%) received IV contrast and had baseline and follow-up serum creatinine. Median age was 38 years (range, 18-95 years) and median Injury Severity Score (ISS) was 16. A total of 8% of patients had history of diabetes mellitus. CIAKI was identified in 78 (6.6%). One patient required long-term hemodialysis. In univariable analysis, age>65 years (p=0.01), history of diabetes mellitus (p=0.01), initial creatinine>1.5 mg/dL (p=0.01), ISS≥16 (p=0.04), and initial systolic blood pressure

Current recommendations for resuscitation of the critically injured patient are limited by a lack of point-of-care (POC) assessment of coagulation status. Accordingly, the potential exists for indiscriminant blood component administration. Furthermore, although thromboembolic events have been described shortly after injury, the time sequence of post-injury coagulation changes is unknown. Our current understanding of hemostasis has shifted from a classic view, in which coagulation was considered a chain of catalytic enzyme reactions, to the cell-based model (CBM), representing the interplay between the cellular and plasma components of clot formation. Thromboelastography (TEG), a time-sensitive dynamic assay of the viscoelastic properties of blood, closely parallels the CBM, permitting timely, goal-directed restoration of hemostasis via POC monitoring of coagulation status. TEG-based therapy allows for goal-directed blood product administration in trauma, with potential avoidance of the complications resulting from overzealous component administration, as well as the ability to monitor post-injury coagulation status and thromboprophylaxis. This overview addresses coagulation status and thromboprophylaxis management in the trauma patient and the emerging role of POC TEG.

Background Guidelines of the National Kidney Foundation recommending aggressive pursuit of autogenous fistulae for dialysis access in lieu of prosthetic arteriovenous grafts have stimulated a renewed interest in transposed brachial-basilic fistulae as an alternative technique for upper arm access in patients who may not be candidates for a lower arm radial-cephalic or forearm brachial-cephalic fistula. We hypothesized that in our safety-net population, where radial-cephalic and brachial-cephalic often are not possible, brachial-basilic would provide patency rates superior to arteriovenous grafts and equivalent to radial-cephalic and brachial-cephalic fistulae. Methods We analyzed retrospectively our most recent 2.5-year experience with dialysis access procedures at our metropolitan safety-net hospital. Procedures were grouped as follows: radial-cephalic, brachial-cephalic, brachial-basilic, and arteriovenous grafts. The access outcomes measured were primary failure, time to use, need for intervention, and primary as well as secondary patency. Differences in age, sex, race, renal function (Modification of Diet in Renal Disease), baseline diagnoses (diabetes mellitus, hypertension, coronary artery disease, and peripheral vascular disease), as well as the number of previous accesses, were adjusted in the analysis. Logistic regression was used to identify independent predictors of primary failure, and Kaplan-Meier plots assessed differences in primary patency rates. A log of the time variables was used to approximate normal distribution. Results In all, 193 patients were included in this study as follows: radial-cephalic, 75 (39%) patients; brachial-cephalic, 35 (18%) patients; brachial-basilic, 33 (17%) patients; and arteriovenous grafts, 50 (26%) patients. Primary patency means differed marginally between groups ( P = .08), and when grafts were excluded from the analysis, no difference was found between primary patency in all autogenous fistula techniques ( P = .88). Kaplan-Meier plots showed that when analyzing the first 35 weeks, a significantly lower primary patency among graft recipients early after the procedure was noted, and a higher performance of BB after 20 weeks was noted (log-rank P = .05, Wilcoxon P = .004). Furthermore, secondary patency did not vary significantly between groups ( P = .62). Radial-cephalic were more likely to fail primarily when compared with the other access groups ( P = .03), and in a univariate analysis, underlying hypertension was associated with a lower risk of primary failure ( P = .01) compared with other diagnoses. A logistic regression stepwise selection showed that the underlying diagnoses of peripheral vascular disease, diabetes mellitus, or coronary artery disease were associated with a greater risk of primary failure compared with those with HTN ( P = .001; odds ratio, 4.05; 95% confidence interval, 1.71–9.59), as well as the presence of a previously failed access ( P = .04; odds ratio, 2.39; 95% confidence interval, 1.08–5.67). Conclusion In a safety-net population, our results suggest that 2-stage brachial-basilic transposition fistulae provide patency rates equivalent to brachial-cephalic and radial-cephalic fistulae and superior to grafts. Although 2 procedures are required, brachial-basilic fistulae provide a reliable access and should be considered the next choice when radial-cephalic and/or brachial-cephalic are not possible.

The existence of primary fibrinolysis (PF) and a defined mechanistic link to the "Acute Coagulopathy of Trauma" is controversial. Rapid thrombelastography (r-TEG) offers point of care comprehensive assessment of the coagulation system. We hypothesized that postinjury PF occurs early in severe shock, leading to postinjury coagulopathy, and ultimately hemorrhage-related death.Consecutive patients over 14 months at risk for postinjury coagulopathy were stratified by transfusion requirements into massive (MT)10 units/6 hours (n = 32), moderate (Mod) 5 to 9 units/6 hours (n = 15), and minimal (Min)5 units/6 hours (n = 14). r-TEG was performed by adding tissue factor to uncitrated whole blood. r-TEG estimated percent lysis was categorized as PF when15% estimated percent lysis was detected. Coagulopathy was defined as r-TEG clot strength = G5.3 dynes/cm. Logistic regression was used to define independent predictors of PF.A total of 34% of injured patients requiring MT had PF, which was associated with lower emergency department systolic blood pressure, core temperature, and greater metabolic acidosis (analysis of variance, P0.0001). The risk of death correlated significantly with PF (P = 0.026). PF occurred early (median, 58 minutes; interquartile range, 1.2-95.9 minutes); every 1 unit drop in G increased the risk of PF by 30%, and death by over 10%.Our results confirm the existence of PF in severely injured patients. It occurs early (1 hour), and is associated with MT requirements, coagulopathy, and hemorrhage-related death. These data warrant renewed emphasis on the early diagnosis and treatment of fibrinolysis in this cohort.

The appropriate timing of cranioplasty after decompressive craniectomy for trauma is unknown. Potential benefits of delayed intervention (6 weeks) for reducing the risk of infection must be balanced by persistent altered cerebrospinal fluid dynamics leading to hydrocephalus. We reviewed our recent 5-year experience in an effort to improve patient throughput and develop a rational decision making plan.A 5-year query (2003-2007) of our level I neurotrauma database. From 2,400 head injuries, we performed a total of 350 craniotomies. Of the 350 patients who underwent craniotomy for trauma, 70 patients (20%) underwent decompressive craniectomy requiring cranioplasty. Timing of cranioplasty, cranioplasty material, postoperative infections, and incidence of hydrocephalus were evaluated with logistic regression to study potential associations between complications and timing, adjusted for risk factors.No specific time frame was predictive of hydrocephalus or infection, and logistic regression failed to identify significant predictors among the collected variables.In our experience, the prior practice of delayed cranioplasty (3-6 months postdecompressive craniectomy), requiring repeat hospital admission, does not seem to lower postcranioplasty infection rates nor the need for cerebrospinal fluid diversion procedures. Our current practice emphasizes cranioplasty during the initial hospital admission, as soon as there is resolution on computed tomography scan of brain swelling outside of the cranial vault with concurrent clinical examination. This occurs as early as 2 weeks postcraniectomy and should lower the overall cost of care by eliminating the need for additional hospital admissions.

Progressive postinjury coagulopathy remains the fundamental rationale for damage control surgery, but the decision to abort operative intervention must occur before laboratory confirmation of coagulopathy. Current massive transfusion protocols have embraced pre-emptive resuscitation strategies emphasizing administration of packed red blood cells, fresh frozen plasma, and platelets in ratios approximating 1:1:1 during the first 24 hours postinjury, based on US military retrospective experience and recent noncontrolled civilian data. This policy, termed "damage control resuscitation" assumes that patients presenting with life threatening hemorrhage at risk for postinjury coagulopathy should receive component therapy in rations approximating those found in whole blood during the first 24 hours. While we concur with the concept of pre-emptive coagulation factor replacement, and initially suggested this in 1982, we remain concerned for the continued unbridled administration of fresh frozen plasma and platelets without objective evidence of their specific requirement. A major limitation of current massive transfusion protocols is the lack of real time assessment of coagulation function to guide evolving blood component requirements. Existing laboratory coagulation testing was originally designed for evaluation of hemophilia and subsequently used for monitoring anticoagulation therapy. Consequently, the applicability of these tests in the trauma setting has never been proven and the time required to conduct these assays is incompatible with prompt correction of the coagulopathy in the trauma setting. This review examines the current approach to postinjury coagulopathy, including identification of patients at risk, resuscitation strategies, design and implementation of institutional massive transfusion protocols, and the potential benefits of goal-directed therapy by real time assessment of coagulation function via point of care rapid thromboelastography.

BACKGROUND: Life-threatening hemorrhage is a rare event in hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelets (HELLP) syndrome. Epidemiologic data are lacking to predict patients at risk for hemorrhage requiring surgical consultation. We sought to identify early clinical predictors of hemorrhagic complications in patients at risk for HELLP syndrome. METHODS: Patients at risk for HELLP syndrome from 1997 to 2007 were identified retrospectively. Variables evaluated in at-risk women were maternal age, gestational history, hepatic transaminase levels, and platelet count. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to identify independent predictors of poor maternal outcomes, which were defined as hemorrhage requiring transfusion of blood products, need for surgical intervention, hepatic rupture, and death. RESULTS: A total of 109 at-risk women were identified. Adverse outcomes included transfusions (18%), hemorrhage interventions (8%), damage control laparotomy (2.8%), and hepatic rupture (2.8%). Maternal and perinatal mortality were .9% and 3.7%, respectively. Median transfusion requirements for women with hepatic rupture were 56 U of packed red blood cells, 26 U of fresh-frozen plasma, 18 U of platelets, and 6 U of cryoprecipitate. Multiple logistic regression analysis showed previous gestations (P = .002), platelet count (P = .01), and aspartate aminotransferase level increase (P = .04) were independent predictors of life-threatening hemorrhage. Previous gestations increased the risk of adverse outcome 3-fold. CONCLUSIONS: Identifiable risk factors predictive of major hemorrhage are thrombocytopenia (< 100,000 cells/μL), increase of aspartate aminotransferase level greater than 70 IU/L, and previous gestations.

Introduction. Progressive postinjury coagulopathy has become the fundamental rationale for damage control surgery, and the decision to abort operative intervention must occur prior to overt laboratory confirmation of coagulopathy. Current coagulation testing is most commonly performed for monitoring anticoagulation therapy, the results are delayed, and the applicability of these tests in the trauma setting is questionable. Point-of-care (POC) rapid thrombelastography (r-TEG) provides real time analysis of thrombostatic function, which may allow for accurate, goal directed therapy. The test differs from standard thrombelastography (TEG) because the clotting process and subsequent analysis is accelerated by the addition of tissue factor to the whole blood sample, but is limited by the requirement that the analysis be performed within 4 min of blood draw to prevent clot formation. Consequently, citrated specimens have been proposed to obviate this time limitation. We hypothesized that the speed of r-TEG analysis following tissue factor addition to citrated blood might compromise accurate determinations compared with noncitrated whole blood. Additionally, we sought to compare the use of r-TEG with conventional coagulation tests in analysis of postinjury coagulopathy. Methods. We conducted a retrospective study of severely injured patients entered into our trauma database between January and June 2008 who were at risk for postinjury coagulopathy. Patients needed simultaneous conventional coagulation (INR, fibrinogen, platelet count) and r-TEG specimens with either fresh or citrated whole blood for inclusion in the study. κ-Statistics were used to determine the agreement between the tests in predicting hypocoagulability. McNemar's x 2 tests were used to compare theoretical blood product administration between r-TEG and conventional coagulation tests for noncitrated specimens. Therapeutic transfusion triggers were: INR ( >1.5) and r-TEG ACT ( > 125 s) for FFP administration; fibrinogen (

Background Recent guidelines do not support local wound exploration (LWE) or diagnostic peritoneal lavage (DPL) in the evaluation of patients with anterior abdominal stab wounds (AASWs), favoring computed tomography scanning or serial examinations. In patients without immediate indications for laparotomy, we hypothesized that LWE/DPL would identify patients requiring surgery while limiting unnecessary hospital admissions. Methods Patients sustaining penetrating trauma at our level I trauma center over a 3-year period were reviewed. Results During the study period, 139 patients with AASW followed our LWE/DPL algorithm. Fifty-six patients had LWE without fascial penetration: 46 were discharged immediately, 10 required admission. Fifty-eight patients had fascial penetration on LWE but negative DPL: 37 were observed for less than 24 hours, 19 were observed for more than 24 hours, and 2 patients developed peritonitis requiring exploration. Twenty-five patients had positive LWE/DPL: 13 had therapeutic laparotomy, 12 had nontherapeutic laparotomy. Conclusions Only 11% of patients with AASWs without overt indication for laparotomy require surgical care. LWE remains a valid method to exclude intra-abdominal injury and to eliminate hospitalization in more than one third of AASW patients.

An unprecedented wave of terror has captivated world attention, highlighted by events of increasing magnitude. 1-8 Terror represents extremists’ persistent efforts to invoke fear to force their philosophies on the world population. Not unlike disease outbreaks in world history, the current terror epidemic knows no borders and strikes innocent civilians during their most productive years of life. The objective of terrorists is to kill and maim as many citizens as possible and to incite fear and chaos, so dense population centers and locations where the public congregates are prime targets. Traditionally, key factors emphasized in epidemiologicstudieshaveincludedthemagnitudeoftheproblem, populations affected, and patterns of injury. Based on such reviews, interventional efforts have been tailored for specific injury prevention. Although politicians worldwide debate negotiated solutions, the medical community must respond to the immediate needs of the population, dealing with the devastating effects after such mass casualty events. The management of mass casualty events demands strict adherence to established protocols and coordinated mobilization of available manpower and medical resources, which are stressed to the maximum. Lessons learned from regions of the world that have encountered terrorist attacks reinforce the concept that the sheer volume of injured patients encountered in such events may challenge even the most mature trauma system and the most experienced individual institution. 9-13 Accordingly, as greater experience

Purpose of review Coagulopathy represents one of the major challenges in the management of the severely injured patient. The present review will attempt to define the current ‘optimal’ transfusion strategies for the coagulopathic trauma patient and to assess potential weaknesses in the pertinent literature. Recent findings Existing limitations in the management of postinjury coagulopathy include the lack of a uniform definition of the entity, the lack of understanding the mechanisms, and the lack of accurate and rapid diagnostic tests. Rapid thromboelastography represents an improved diagnostic modality that allows ‘point-of-care’ testing of postinjury coagulopathy and monitoring of transfusion strategies. Ongoing controversies in the field include the optimal target blood pressure and the ideal threshold for blood component transfusions in the hospital. Furthermore, the concentration of plasma transfusions remains an ongoing debate. Summary Coagulopathy has a significant impact on survival after major trauma. Most recent publications in the field are of retrospective design, and thus do not allow definitive recommendations for clinical practice. Well designed prospective trials and improved basic research studies are required to improve this important aspect of trauma care.

Recent military experience suggests that immediate 1:1 fresh frozen plasma (FFP); red blood cells (RBC) for casualties requiring10 units packed red blood cells (RBC) per 24 hours reduces mortality, but no clinical trials exist to address this issue. Consequently, we reviewed our massive transfusion practices during a 5-year period to test the hypothesis that 1:1 FFP:RBC within the first 6 hours reduces life threatening coagulopathy.We queried our level I trauma center's prospective registry from 2001 to 2006 for patients undergoing massive transfusion. Logistic regression was used to evaluate the independent effect of FFP:RBC in 133 patients who received10 units RBC in 6 hours on (1) Coagulopathy (international normalized ratio [INR]1.5 at 6 hours), controlling for our previously described risk factors predictive of coagulopathy, as well as RBC, FFP, and platelet administration (2) Death (controlling for all variables plus age, crystalloids per 24 hours, INR1.5 at 6 hours).Overall mortality was 56%; 50% died from acute blood loss in the operating room. Over 80% of the RBC transfusions were completed in the first 6 hours: (Median RBC: 18 units) Median FFP:RBC survivors, 1:2, nonsurvivors: 1:4. (p0.001) INR1.5 at 6 hours occurred in 30 (23%); 81% died. Regarding mortality, logistic regression showed significant variables (p0.05) included: RBC per 6 hours (OR = 1.248, 95%CI: 1.957-53.255), INR at 6 hours1.5 (OR = 10.208, 95% CI: 1.957-53.255), ED temperature34 degrees C (OR = 15.491, 95% CI 1.376-174.396), and age55 years (OR = 40.531, CI 5.315-309.077). The adjusted OR for FFP:RBC ratio including the quadratic term was found to follow a U-shaped association (quadratic term estimate 0.6737 +/- 0.0345, p = 0.0189).Although our data suggest that 1:1 FFP:RBC reduced coagulopathy, this did not translate into a survival benefit. Our findings indicate that the relationship between coagulopathy and mortality is more complex, and further clinical investigation is necessary before recommending routine 1:1 in the exsanguinating trauma patient.

Caustic material ingestion injuries (CMI) are uncommon. Only 5,000 cases are reported in the United States each year and most acute care healthcare facilities admit only a few cases annually. Accordingly, no single institution can claim extensive experience, and management protocols are most probably based on either expert opinion or literature reports. In this study, we will attempt to review opinions and practices of representatives of the board members of the World Society of Emergency Surgery and compare them to the current literature.

Introduction Lesions of the upper digestive tract due to ingestion of caustic agents still represent a major medical and surgical emergency worldwide. The work-up of these patients is poorly defined and no clear therapeutic guidelines are available. Purpose of the study The aim of this study was to provide an evidence-based international consensus on primary and secondary prevention, diagnosis, staging, and treatment of this life-threatening and potentially disabling condition. Methods An extensive literature search was performed by an international panel of experts under the auspices of the World Society of Emergency Surgery (WSES). The level of evidence of the screened publications was graded using the Oxford 2011 criteria. The level of evidence of the literature and the main topics regarding foregut caustic injuries were discussed during a dedicated meeting in Milan, Italy (April 2015), and during the 3rd Annual Congress of the World Society of Emergency Surgery in Jerusalem, Israel (July 2015). Results One-hundred-forty-seven full papers which addressed the relevant clinical questions of the research were admitted to the consensus conference. There was an unanimous consensus on the fact that the current literature on foregut caustic injuries lacks homogeneous classification systems and prospective methodology. Moreover, the non-standardized definition of technical and clinical success precludes any accurate comparison of therapeutic modalities. Key recommendations and algorithms based on expert opinions, retrospective studies and literature reviews were proposed and approved during the final consensus conference. The clinical practice guidelines resulting from the consensus conference were approved by the WSES council. Conclusions The recommendations emerging from this consensus conference, although based on a low level of evidence, have important clinical implications. A world registry of foregut caustic injuries could be useful to collect a homogeneous data-base for prospective clinical studies that may help improving the current clinical practice guidelines.

Our objective in this review is to describe the unique features of bombing injury and to outline some special elements of their management. This is to allow the timely improvement and adjustment of existing mass casualty protocols. Forensic studies, detonation and explosion, mechanisms of injury in explosion and their bodily effects, chemical effects of the explosive, site of the explosion and the wounding potential, the Multidimensional Injury Pattern, diagnostic evaluation of Multidimensional Injury Pattern, and surgical and treatment dilemmas associated with it are described and discussed.

Background Long term follow up is difficult to obtain in most trauma settings, these data are essential for assessing outcomes in the older (≥60) patient. We hypothesized that clinical data obtained during initial hospital stay could accurately predict long term survival. Study design Using our trauma registry and hospital database, we reviewed all trauma admissions (age ≥60, ISS > 15) to our Level 1 center over the most recent 7 years. Mechanism of injury, co-morbidities, ICU admission, and ultimate disposition were assessed for 2-7 years post-discharge. Primary outcome was defined as long term survival to the end of the last year of the study. Results Of 342 patients discharged following initial admission, mean age was 76.2 ± 9.7, and ISS was 21.5 ± 6.9. 119 patients (34.8%) died (mean follow up 18.8 months; range 1.1-66.2 months). For 233 survivors, mean follow-up was 50.2 months (range 24.8-83.8 months). Univariate analysis disclosed post-discharge mortality was associated with age (80.1 ± 9.64 vs. 74.2 ± 9.07), mean number of co-morbidities (1.6 ± 1.1 vs. 1.0 ± 1.2), fall as a mechanism, lower GCS upon arrival (11.85 ± 4.21 vs. 13.73 ± 2.89), intubation at the scene and discharge to an assisted living facility (p 4 years following discharge; furthermore, admission data, including younger age, injury mechanism other than falls, higher GCS and home discharge predicted a favorable long term outcome. These findings suggest that common clinical data at initial admission can predict long term survival in the older trauma patient.

A quiet revolution in American surgery has occurred over the past 10-15 years, with the emergence of acute care surgery as a true specialty, and apparently the heir to general surgery. This new paradigm traces its beginning to certain core safety net hospitals in the U.S., such as Denver Health Medical Center, San Fancisco General Hospital, Detroit Receiving Hospital, and Grady Memorial Hospital in Atlanta, and has now extended its foothold to most U.S. academic institutions as well. The discipline of acute care surgery represents a fusion of trauma surgery, surgical critical care, and emergency surgery. although the actual surgical responsibilities of the ACS surgeon may vary, depending on local institutional needs, the core principles remain the same. The new specialty appears to have broad appeal not only to the departments in which they serve, but to resident trainees and hospital administration as well. While a number of challenges need to be addressed before adaption of this system to Israel, the new paradigm appears to have potential for serving Israeli surgery in the future. In summary, there is much to a name. Just as the guardian angel of Aisov gave the new name "Israel" to the biblical patriarch Jacob to signify that he had been evaluated to a new level--"a prince in the eye of G-d and man", "Acute Care Surgery" appears poised to transform General Surgery to a new level for the next generation of surgeons.