Search

The Meaning in Life Questionnaire assesses presence of and search for meaning in life. Although the questionnaire has shown promising psychometric properties in samples from different countries, the scale’s measurement invariance across a large number of nations has yet to be assessed. This study is aimed at addressing this gap, providing insight into how meaning in life is constructed and experienced across countries and into the extent to which cross-country comparisons can be made. A total of 3867 adult participants from 17 countries, aged 30–60, balanced by gender, and with at least secondary education, completed the questionnaire as part of the Eudaimonic and Hedonic Happiness Investigation. Single sample confirmatory factor analysis, multigroup confirmatory factor analysis, and alignment optimization were applied to investigate the scale’s performance across the samples. Good psychometric properties and high levels of approximate measurement invariance emerged for the Presence subscale after removal of item 9, the only reverse-phrased item. Performance of the Search subscale varied more across samples, suggesting caution in interpreting related results supporting approximate measurement invariance. The conceptualization of presence of meaning operationalized in the corresponding subscale (without item 9) appears consistent across countries, whereas search for meaning seems to be less universally homogenous and requires further exploration. Moreover, the Meaning in Life Questionnaire does not reflect the conceptual distinction between “purpose” and “meaning” currently acknowledged by researchers. This issue should be further explored in studies addressing the scale’s performance across cultures.

Solitude––the absence of social interaction––can bring both positive and negative experiences. Drawing on self-determination theory, we conducted three experience sampling studies to investigate quality of experience and dispositions associated with activities varying on two dimensions––chosenness (chosen/unchosen) and social context (solitary/interactive). Participants (total N = 283) completed surveys 6–7 times each day over a 7-day period (total: 8,769 surveys). Multilevel modeling confirmed that participants reported the lowest quality momentary experiences when engaged in unchosen (vs. chosen) solitary activities. Further, individuals who spent more time on unchosen solitary activities reported lower meaning in life and satisfaction with life. Extraversion was positively associated with time spent on chosen interactive activities but negatively with chosen solitary activities. Post hoc analyses revealed that people low (vs. high) in extraversion reported lower productivity only during unchosen interactive activities. Chosen (vs. unchosen) solitary activities seem to have a relatively benign impact on quality of experience and well-being.

Flow experience is a psychological state characterized by simultaneous absorption, concentration, and enjoyment. Examining the change and continuity of the flow experience––an optimal state that contributes to well-being––is critical to the understanding of the lifelong trajectory of human flourishing. Nevertheless, to date there has been no systematic investigation of the relationship between age and flow experiences across adulthood. Developmental models of flow experiences suggest the continuity hypothesis that people are motivated to sustain a high level of flow experiences as long as conditions permit. We conducted two studies to investigate flow experiences among adults of different ages. Study 1 (N = 1,162; age range 30–80) used longitudinal data from the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) project, investigating the changes in flow experiences at work over a 10-year span. Study 2 (N = 393; age range 20–82) was an online survey that examined age-related differences in flow experiences. Both studies revealed minimal relationships between age and flow experiences. Post-hoc analyses revealed no significant moderating effect of common demographics including gender, race, and education on the age–flow relationship. Taken together, these studies elucidate the “flow profile” in adulthood that is consistent with the continuity hypothesis. We discuss relations of the findings to the literature on flow experiences and well-being.

Loneliness is a risk factor for older adults, one exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. Although time spent alone is associated with both loneliness and greater well-being, the experience of solitude may depend on the type of activity pursued. We examined formal prosocial activity as one facilitator of positive solitary experiences. Older adults ( N = 165, Mage = 71.13, SD = 5.70) highly committed to prosocial-program work (e.g., tutoring) filled out surveys at six random times every day for a week. Using multilevel modeling, we investigated whether participating in prosocial-program activity alone was associated with greater well-being compared to other solitary activity. While prosocial-program activity did not buffer against negative affect in solitude, it promoted positive affect and relatedness when alone. To the extent that prosocial-program work can facilitate positive solitary experiences by enhancing feelings of connection, it may protect against threats to well-being posed by loneliness in later life.

To discern what accounts for moment-to-moment fluctuations in well-being, the present study investigated how state-level autonomy relates to three aspects of well-being: affect, engagement, and mea...

One way to achieve a high level of well-being is by engaging in and enjoying everyday activities. Research has unveiled seven personal attributes (autotelic personality, collectively) that facilita...

The authors’ review of relevant literature revealed the following: (1) flow, an optimal experience, can occur during participation in the arts and humanities; (2) flow is a vehicle to flourishing; and (3) the arts and humanities are abundant sources of wisdom that can aid in the understanding of oneself and the world. These points together suggest that flow experiences in the arts and humanities offer a special opportunity for growth, and the authors conclude this chapter by proposing three avenues for this development: (1) because flow is an intrinsically rewarding experience, the experience itself encourages people to engage with the benefits of the arts and humanities; (2) flow breaks down the barrier between conscious and subconscious thought to facilitate creative and contemplative pursuits; and (3) recurring flow experiences in the arts and humanities lead to the cyclical development of challenge and skill, cultivating mastery and wisdom.

According to socioemotional selectivity theory (SST), older adults prefer activities that provide immediate experiential rewards-specifically, emotionally meaningful experiences-but research is needed to establish the posited association. We conducted an experience sampling study of older adults intensively serving formal prosocial programs, which can offer them meaningful social roles

Love is seen as interpersonal phenomenon in western society. The love of things that are non-interpersonal or ‘beyond-personal’ is less understood. A sample of 208 adults responded to a questionnai...

The current developmental perspective on flow theory focuses mainly on the growth of skills. Such perspective, however, may overlook how individuals find flow in the face of developmental losses. T...

This chapter discusses positive aging from a lifespan perspective. That is, it situates later life within the life as a whole and differentiates two periods within later life – the third (young-old) and fourth (oldest-old) ages. While discussing multiple dimensions of biopsychosocial aging, which include physical and cognitive health, the chapter gives primary attention to psychosocial aging, where great potential exists for cross-fertilization with positive psychology. The chapter begins with brief discussion of demographics (i.e., the aging of societies around the globe) and definitional issues, recognizing that there are multiple traditions within gerontology that have addressed positive dimensions of the aging process. Then, employing gerontology’s distinction between the third and fourth ages of life, we discuss the potential for positive experience during the fourth age and the more extensive areas of positive functioning that characterize the third age. In closing, we identify several interventions that promote aging well and suggest ways of approaching research in this area.

This chapter describes flow, the experience of complete absorption in the present moment, and the experiential approach to positive psychology that it represents. Flow theory and research have suggested one answer to the question of what constitutes a good life. The model of optimal experience and development that is associated with the concept of flow is summarized, and the chapter describes several ways of measuring flow, giving particular attention to the experience sampling method. Some recent research concerning the outcomes and dynamics of flow, its conditions at school and work, and interventions that have been employed to foster flow are reviewed. Finally, some of the promising directions for flow research moving into the future are identified.

This article tests the utility of self-report and objective assessment of physical activity to predict increased positive affect. Participants wore Fitbit activity trackers and responded to single-item assessments of momentary affect and self-reported physical activity following an experience sampling method protocol. A test of the within-person mediation indicated that, on average, 63 percent of the relationship between objective physical activity and affect was accounted for by self-reported physical activity. This research adds to the body of literature demonstrating the benefits of physical activity and discusses the utility of perceived over actual assessments of physical activity in naturalistic settings.

Relative to high-arousal positive affect (HAPA), low-arousal positive affect (LAPA) is less likely to be included in research on positive affect and emotion. To gauge the possible cost of omitting LAPA from such research, two studies were conducted assessing the unique contribution of LAPA (e.g., calm, relaxed, content) in predicting variance in measures of well-being and mental health above and beyond HAPA (e.g., alert, excited, enthusiastic). In two studies, multiple regression analyses revealed that LAPA uniquely predicted life satisfaction, depression, feeling good, mindfulness, anxiety, and stress beyond HAPA. Furthermore, the results indicated that when both LAPA and HAPA were in the regression model, LAPA significantly predicted variance in mindfulness, anxiety, and stress whereas HAPA did not. These data indicate that the inclusion of LAPA in research can improve the field’s ability to investigate the causes and effects of positive affectivity. Theoretical perspectives on different types of positive affect and practical implications for researchers are discussed.

Mentoring during training and the early career is one possible means of cultivating virtue in the practice of science. To examine its perceived impact, we approached virtue and its cultivation usin...

This symposium reports findings from a national experience-sampling study of 165 older adults (mean age=71, range=60-88 years) who are heavily involved in prosocial activity, contributing to their communities as leaders or high-commitment volunteers in social-purpose organizations. Gerontological research has linked prosocial activity to a set of positive outcomes for the older adults who engage in it (e.g., better health and reduced mortality), including global measures of well-being such as life satisfaction. However, little is known about the contributors to these individuals’ momentary well-being. Four presentations address this gap in knowledge. In the first presentation, Dwight Tse revisits the concept of successful aging as a within-person variable with day-to-day variations. Experience sampling data revealed great variations in successful aging indicators, and successful aging was associated with better well-being as hypothesized. In the second presentation, Ajit Mann extends beyond general control beliefs and explores the diversity in distribution of control beliefs across various daily activities (e.g., active leisure, prosocial activity, socializing, etc.), in addition to investigating the relationship between later life control diversity and subjective well-being. In the third presentation, Kelsey Finley explores Aristotle’s concept of the golden mean (an ideal state between deficiency and excess) for the number of hours spent in prosocial work on momentary well-being outcomes. In the fourth presentation, Jeanne Nakamura examines the relationship between global meaning in life and meaningful engagement in the moment, illuminating variation in this relationship through a comparison of the prosocial leaders and high-commitment volunteers.

Missing values are nearly inescapable within social science research. The problem of missing data is especially troubling in longitudinal and intensive longitudinal studies when participants miss an entire collection cycle compared to item nonresponse. The present study examines some of the contextual influences of missed study participation using unobtrusive measures of experience in conjunction with the experience sampling method (ESM). A sample of 66 participants generated 2,940 observations across a 7-day study, yielding a missing response rate of 34%. Multilevel binary logistic regression was used to estimate the probability of missing the study participation signal based upon study time and physical activity states. Results indicate that the probability of missing collection signals increases throughout the duration of the study and with high levels of physical activity. The strongest predictor of missed participation occurred when participants’ activity monitors were set to “asleep” mode. Implications of these findings and recommendations for future ESM studies are discussed.

Flow is an optimal psychological state characterized by the enjoyment of deep absorption in what one is doing. This psychological state is autotelic (i.e., rewarding in itself); experiencing flow intrinsically motivates individuals to engage in activities that are conducive to it. Research on the flow experience has shed light on the phenomenology of intrinsic motivation since Csikszentmihalyi (1975) first introduced the flow concept. This chapter (a) describes the dimensions and conditions of the flow experience, (b) reviews research on its psychological covariates, (c) highlights conceptual and operational differences among four flow-related constructs, (d) discusses theory and research on the temporal dynamics of flow experience, and (e) summarizes research on the neurophysiology of the flow state.

Recent years have seen growing interest in older adults’ sense of meaning in life, a core dimension of eudaimonic well-being throughout adulthood that has been associated in later life with reduced morbidity and mortality. Currently, the relations between this global sense of meaning in life and the experience of meaningful engagement in the moment remain largely unexplored, particularly in later lives that are distinguished by high levels of meaning. Multilevel analysis of ESM data from prosocial leaders and volunteers indicated that feelings of meaningful engagement fluctuated in daily life for both groups, even while questionnaire data showed that global sense of meaning in life was high. Examining basic sources of fulfillment (e.g., sense of relatedness) revealed type of involvement (leadership vs. volunteerism) affected the source(s) of fulfillment that connected meaning at the global and momentary levels. Implications for theory, research, and applied work on meaning and prosocial commitment are discussed.

Contemporary theories consider development to be lifelong, suggesting a potential for personal growth in older adulthood. Narrative studies have found benefits of having growth themes in older adults’ broad life stories, yet there is limited research focusing on the specific experiences in later life that elicit growth. One potential for personal growth during older age is through prosocial behavior, but studies have overlooked how older adults narrate such experiences and the perceived impact the narratives have on the self. We conducted interviews with a sample of 47 older adults engaged in prosocial commitments to examine the types of perceived self-change as well as patterns in high points and low points of the experience. Narrative analyses revealed the majority of participants reported a change in the self, and half of the sample used growth themes to characterize the self-change. Inductive coding of change narratives revealed an emergent category of virtuous change (e.g., transcendence, wisdom, humanity), as well as a variety of other change categories (e.g., competence, cognitive abilities, negative changes). Those who grew narrated high points and low points with more integration than those who did not, displaying a multifaceted, complex understanding of significant episodes through a blend of both positive and negative elements within one story. These findings suggest that an integrated understanding of prosocial experiences may provide an avenue toward personal growth. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Recent advancements in research on control beliefs have enabled the assessment of inter-individual differences in its intra-individual variability via a measure of control diversity. However, past research has focused on control diversity in relation to daily stressors. Among a sample of prosocial exemplars, this experience sampling study investigates control diversity across general daily activities and explores its relationship with subjective well-being. Participants indicated the activity they were primarily involved in, the extent to which they felt in control over the situation, and levels of positive and negative affect each time they were signaled; satisfaction with life was measured using a one-time survey at the end of the study. Results from multilevel structural equation modeling suggested that control diversity did not significantly predict positive or negative affect, or satisfaction with life. The study points toward the lack of association between control diversity and subjective well-being and highlights future directions for research.

Flow theory postulates that flow experience is the most intense under high-challenge/high-skill conditions, whereas an excess of challenge is aversive. This study explores potential moderators that may offset the negative impact of overly high challenge on flow state. The literature suggests that a situational factor, teamwork, and a dispositional factor, flow proneness, may moderate the relationship between challenge and flow state. We tested these moderators with Hong Kong Chinese students whose optimal condition for experiencing flow was biased toward low-challenge/high-skill. A total of 128 participants played puzzles in three challenge levels both alone and in pairs. Although challenge level was negatively associated with flow state, dyadic (team) game (compared with solitary game) and flow proneness mitigated the negative relationship between challenge and flow state. These findings shed light on factors that promote enjoyment in challenging activities even among people in cultures that are ...

The role of purpose in the lives of older adults is a topic of increasing interest to the community of gerontologists, psychologists, and practitioners seeking a better understanding of how older adults can contribute to the greater good of society. “Purpose” has been variously associated with well-being, including physical and mental health, preventing social isolation, working longer, and the concept of productive aging. New research is deepening our understand of purpose in the 50+ population and providing new ways of looking at the relationship between these frameworks, how they intersect (or don’t), and how we can develop models for advancing purpose as a “good” in the lives of older adults and as a force for change in society. Jim Emerman will report on research from a three-year study conducted by researchers at Stanford University and Encore.org on the prevalence and characteristics of purpose beyond-the-self. Jeanne Nakamura will report on new research on the role of purpose in the day-to-day lives of older volunteers and social innovators. Philip Taylor will discuss finding meaning and identity outside the workplace and challenging productivity notions of later life.

As one form of productive aging, many older adults undertake significant prosocial activity. Alongside its contribution to the welfare of others, prosocial activity has been linked to a variety of positive outcomes for those undertaking it (e.g., higher life satisfaction). However, little is known about the impact of this activity on older adults’ day-to-day lives. We studied a national sample of about 150 older adults who give back to their communities on a regular basis in one of two ways: either by playing leadership roles in social-purpose organizations or as more traditional volunteer workers in such organizations. We employed the experience sampling method to describe and compare the experience of prosocial activity during a typical week for these two groups of highly engaged adults. While prosocial activity carries both costs and rewards, these show differences as well as similarities for the two groups. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Much attention has been devoted to traditional forms of social contribution in later life such as volunteering. In contrast, little is known about social innovation – the creation of new ways to address persistent social problems. In particular, the pathways leading to social innovation in later life are largely uncharted. In an ongoing mixed-methods research project, we are examining the nature, antecedents, and correlates of this form of social contribution in later life by studying nominees for the Purpose Prize, a U.S. award that recognizes successful social innovation by individuals over sixty. This presentation will draw on semi-structured interviews conducted with 50 Purpose Prize honorees. Based on systematic coding and analysis, we present the key building blocks of older adults’ pathways to social innovation, and distill the features of the most common pathways while documenting the diversity of pathways taken. Implications for facilitating later-life expression of creative prosocial energies are discussed.

Mentoring is a prosocial behavior in which an experienced person guides someone with less experience. Elevation refers to the responses elicited when a person witnesses others upholding the highest standards of moral virtue. Three experimental studies bring these two domains together. For all three studies, participants were randomly assigned to either read a story of someone exhibiting moral excellence or to a control condition. Participants in the elevation condition reported feeling more elevated, more positive attitudes toward mentoring, less negative attitudes toward mentoring, greater intentions to become a mentor (Study 1); an increased proclivity to gather information about becoming a mentor (Study 2a); and, an increased tendency to engage in mentoring directly via submitting advice to students (Study 2b). In their totality, the current studies link another prosocial outcome with elevation and demonstrate a condition under which individuals are more likely to be motivated to become a mentor.

To investigate meaning as experienced in daily life, where it has been linked to positive events and emotions, experience-sampling data were used to examine the positive emotion of pride. Recent empirical work emphasizes self-focused, self-enhancing action (i.e. achieving) as a source of pride, but theory suggests that other-focused action (i.e. caring) is also significant. Because work and family are common sources of meaning that offer opportunities to feel pride about both achieving and caring in daily life, working parents (247 mothers and 271 fathers) were studied. Achievement experience and prosocial experience both were associated with pride. However, pride’s comparatively neglected relationship to prosocial experience was even stronger than its relationship to achievement experience, in family life and work life, for women and men. Two recognized sources of meaning – both other-oriented – were associated with experiences of intense pride: being with one’s children and working with clients.

Background: Previous research has focused on the positive consequences of flow, an intrinsically rewarding state of deep absorption. In contrast, the present research links flow to impaired risk awareness and to risky behaviour. We expected flow to enhance self-efficacy beliefs, which in turn were hypothesised to result in low risk awareness and risky behaviour in sports. In addition, we predicted that individuals' level of experience in the activity would moderate the expected effects. Methods: One study with kayakers (Study 1) and two studies with rock climbers (Studies 2 and 3) were conducted. Kayakers completed a survey while still on the river; climbers responded during and upon completion of a climb. Results: In all studies flow was related to risk awareness. Study 2 additionally showed its association with risky behaviour. Studies 2 and 3 revealed that these relationships were mediated by self-efficacy. The mediations were moderated by level of experience (Study 3). Conclusions: The results indicated that inexperienced but not experienced participants respond to self-efficacy beliefs evoked by flow with impaired risk awareness and with risky behaviour. Theoretical implications for flow and risk research as well as practical implications for risk prevention are discussed.

In well-being research the term happiness is often used as synonymous with life satisfaction. However, little is known about lay people's understanding of happiness. Building on the available literature, this study explored lay definitions of happiness across nations and cultural dimensions, analyzing their components and relationship with participants' demographic features. Participants were 2799 adults (age range = 30-60, 50% women) living in urban areas of Argentina, Brazil, Croatia, Hungary, India, Italy, Mexico, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, South Africa, and United States. They completed the Eudaimonic and Hedonic Happiness Investigation (EHHI), reporting, among other information, their own definition of happiness. Answers comprised definitions referring to a broad range of life domains, covering both the contextual-social sphere and the psychological sphere. Across countries and with little variation by age and gender, inner harmony predominated among psychological definitions, and family and social relationships among contextual definitions. Whereas relationships are widely acknowledged as basic happiness components, inner harmony is substantially neglected. Nevertheless, its cross-national primacy, together with relations, is consistent with the view of an ontological interconnectedness characterizing living systems, shared by several conceptual frameworks across disciplines and cultures. At the methodological level, these findings suggest the potential of a bottom-up, mixed method approach to contextualize psychological dimensions within culture and lay understanding., Financial support was provided to some of the authors by the University of Rijeka, Croatia (project 13.04.1.3.05); the Hungarian Scientific Research Fund (OTKA; grant PD 105685) the Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand; the Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Norway; the National Research Foundation of South Africa (CPRR 13092547210-91557 and RN60571-NRF IPRR-UID 85649); the Department of Psychology, Claremont Graduate University, USA; the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology and the Portuguese Ministry of Education and Science through national funds and co-financed by FEDER under the PT2020; UNAM-PAPIIT IG300415 Mexico (UID/PSI/01662/2013)., info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Flow is a subjective experience of high but effortless attention, loss of self-awareness, control, and enjoyment that can occur during active performance of challenging tasks. Proneness to experien ...

Flow is an experience of enjoyment, concentration, and low self-awareness that occurs during active task performance. We investigated associations between the tendency to experience flow (flow proneness), Big Five personality traits and intelligence in two samples. We hypothesized a negative relation between flow proneness and neuroticism, since negative affect could interfere with the affective component of flow. Secondly, since sustained attention is a component of flow, we tested whether flow proneness is positively related to intelligence. Sample 1 included 137 individuals who completed tests for flow proneness, intelligence, and Big Five personality. In Sample 2 (all twins; n= 2539), flow proneness and intelligence, but not personality, were measured. As hypothesized, we found a negative correlation between flow proneness and neuroticism in Sample 1. Additional exploratory analyses revealed a positive association between flow proneness and conscientiousness. There was no correlation between flow proneness and intelligence. Although significant for some comparisons, associations between intelligence and flow proneness were also very weak in Sample 2. We conclude that flow proneness is associated with personality rather than intelligence, and discuss that flow may be a state of effortless attention that relies on different mechanisms from those involved in attention during mental effort.

Flow theory postulates that people enjoy the optimal experience when challenge level of an activity matches their skill level. However, little research has extended the theory to examine the effect of challenge-skill balance on older adults’ emotional experiences. This recently completed study investigated whether older adults experienced more frequent high arousal positive(HAP) and low arousal positive(LAP) emotions in challenge-skill balanced activities. 104 younger(Mage=25.8, SD=2.76) and 93 older adults(Mage=65.0, SD=4.78) identified underchallenging(challenge-lower-than-skill), challenge-skill balanced, and overchallenging(challenge-higher-than-skill) activities that they had chosen to do in the past, and reported their typical emotions in each activity. Results were analyzed by repeated measures ANOVA and paired comparison t-tests. Consistent with flow theory, both younger and older adults reported more frequent HAP and LAP emotions in challenge-skill balanced activities than in underchallenging or overchallenging activities, F(2,392)=133.42, p

Social contribution is a source of meaning and purpose, viewed as closely related but distinct aspects of flourishing. In later life, one investment of accumulated experience and available time is a dedication to social contribution. We report on an experience sampling study of meaningfulness and purpose in the daily lives of 52 nominees for the Purpose Prize, a U.S. award recognizing social contribution after age sixty. Consistent with expected overlap between experiencing meaning and enacting purpose, average levels of the two were nearly identical. They also were moderately correlated. Further, social contribution was associated with both: participants reported experiencing more meaningfulness and more purpose (p’s

One step toward the actualization of successful aging in society is to unveil the lives of older adults who are thriving and flourishing. Specifically, the knowledge of the daily lives of civic engagement exemplars may shed light on how to live well and make day-to-day contributions to society. This symposium intends to provide researchers and practitioners with insight into the momentary experiences of civic engagement exemplars and recommendations on conducting experience sampling research with both exemplary and normative older populations. The symposium reports on an experience sampling study with nominees for the Purpose Prize, a national award in the U.S. that honors successful efforts to tackle difficult social problems after the age of 60. Participants filled out short surveys in response to six random signals per day for seven days. The 52 exemplars (age range=64–84) together completed 1617 momentary reports, with 40% of reports capturing the work on their social programs. The first presentation (Finley et al.) reports that the exemplars scored higher on all momentary indicators of successful aging when engaged in social contribution compared to when they were doing something else. The second presentation (Boeder et al.) highlights the contribution of solitary civic engagement activities to the exemplars’ perceived social connectedness. The third presentation (Nakamura et al.) discusses methodological considerations related to the study of older (exemplar) population’s momentary experiences. Finally, James Emerman as the discussant concludes the symposium with the applied implications of the presentations.

This presentation discusses methodological strengths and limitations of using experience sampling methods (ESM) with an older exemplar population. As illustrated in the preceding papers and in this presentation, ESM provided rich information about the dynamics of civic engagement exemplars’ experience and the ecology of their daily lives impossible to obtain with other methods. This study was conducted despite a number of apparent barriers. For example, the sample of civic engagement exemplars was dispersed across the country, precluding person-to-person walkthroughs. In addition, although technological advances enable ESM researchers to utilize increasingly sophisticated technology for data collection, there were also concerns as to whether the participant experience would be hindered by introducing novel technology to the sample. Lessons of general interest gleaned from both researchers and participants will be discussed and methods of addressing these issues will be described.

To develop a model of the optimal mentoring environment for medical residents. The authors propose that such an environment is a function of a relationship that rests upon a set of interactional foundations that allow a protégé to capitalize on the strengths of the mentor, and it facilitates behaviors that will enable the protégé to develop and internalize the requisite knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs) as fully as possible.The authors searched the literature using Web of Science and Google Scholar in 2007-2008 to identify articles addressing the mentoring process and the context in which it occurs (mentoring environment), and the effect both have on KSA development. The authors distilled the attributes of a good mentor that were consistent across the 20 papers that met inclusion criteria and described good mentoring of residents or curricula for training mentors or residents.The authors identified six interactional foundations that underlie the optimal mentoring relationship: emotional safety, support, protégé-centeredness, informality, responsiveness, and respect. These foundations enable protégés to engage in four key developmental behaviors: exercising independence, reflecting, extrapolating, and synthesizing.This model identifies mentoring practices that empower protégés to engage in developmental behaviors that will help them become the best physicians possible. Educators may use this model to develop training tools to teach attendings how to create an optimal mentoring environment. Researchers can use the model to help guide their future investigations of mentoring in medicine.

Over the last 50 years, theoretical, speculative, and empirical scholarship has examined the influence of early family context on subsequent accomplishments in children of high ability. Building upon 40 years of creativity literature focusing on optimal experience, this exploratory study applied the Complex Family Framework in a systematic analysis of creative adults’ recollections of their early family lives. The study identifies evidence of the interplay of integration and Differentiation, a catalyst for individual optimal experience, in the families of nine creative exemplars who have made significant contributions to contemporary culture. Five participants represented the Arts and Humanities, three the Social Sciences, and one the Physical Sciences. The study demonstrates the utility of the Complex Family Framework in understanding families’ contributions to children’s later creative achievement.

This article describes the phenomenon of flow, the subjective experience of being completely absorbed in a task or activity. We provide an overview of the flow model of optimal experience and affirm the flow state's close association with intrinsic and emergent motivation. We also describe the various ways that flow has been measured, discuss the antecedents and consequences of flow within the domains of work and leisure, and identify emerging areas of flow research.

professors. The two were talking about the fact that they did not like teaching undergraduates and preferred to teach graduate students, and to do research. They were exchanging pointers on how to get out of undergraduate teaching. One of them was saying that he taught them badly: he reused his lecture notes and didn't try to put anything into it. And so the dean didn't make him teach that course very often. I found myself getting very angry at hearing this, but I couldn't quite under stand why it mattered to me what these guys did in their teaching. And then I realized that I had [formed a conviction] that pedagogy was fundamentally im portant, especially at the undergraduate level. At that moment, something in me said, T don't want to be like them.' It was then that I decided I would think about teaching at a small college." This event, described as a graduate school epiphany by an engineer who went on to become an outstanding teacher at an outstanding college, il lustrates the lack of support for taking undergraduate teaching seriously and aspiring to excellence in it. Yet isn't it worrisome that few college teachers would find the vignette surprising? Unfortunately it is not only university teaching where the central purpose of the profession appears to be compro mised. Physicians find themselves in creasingly in the role of administrators rather than healers, and lawyers com plain about not being able to serve cli ents with the personal attention they ex pected to be able to give when starting their careers. In most professions, prac titioners rarely spend more than a quar Jeanne Nakamura is research director of the Quality of Life Research Center and director of the GoodWork Project's research group at Clare mont Graduate University. The coeditor of "Sup portive Frameworks for Youth Engagement" (2001), she is currently leading research projects on the pursuit of good work in the American col lege and in mentoring.

Across the life course, dedication to a social purpose is associated with both individual and collective well-being. Increasingly, later life is being recognized as a period when adults may form a purpose goal meaningful to themselves and useful to others and dedicate their energies to pursuing it, for example, by leveraging accrued experience to create new ways of addressing social problems. Three papers will share empirical reports addressing how older adults in the U.S. form and pursue social purpose and the psychosocial and institutional means by which this can be facilitated, summarizing lessons learned from three mixed-methods research projects. A leader in the psychology of aging will provide a discussion. Anne Colby will present results of a study of purpose beyond-the-self and its correlates in adults over 50, based on a survey of a nationally representative sample (n=1,200) and over 100 interviews on the topic. Jeanne Nakamura will present a paper based on 50 in-depth interviews with individuals over 60 who have been honored for successful social innovation, charting the diverse pathways those individuals took to realize their purpose goals. Jim Emerman will discuss results of a survey of organizations helping older individuals find ways to live out their purpose goals, mapping programmatic resources available to this population and analyzing opportunities and gaps in services. Then, Laura Carstensen will provide an integrative discussion of the papers, informed by her extensive body of work. The session will conclude with discussion by the panel and audience of issues that have been raised.