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Abstract Purpose To compare linear and curvilinear models describing the force–velocity relationship obtained in lower-limb acyclic extensions, considering experimental data on an unprecedented range of velocity conditions. Methods Nine athletes performed lower-limb extensions on a leg-press ergometer, designed to provide a very broad range of force and velocity conditions. Previously inaccessible low inertial and resistive conditions were achieved by performing extensions horizontally and with assistance. Force and velocity were continuously measured over the push-off in six resistive conditions to assess individual force–velocity relationships. Goodness of fit of linear and curvilinear models (second-order polynomial function, Fenn and Marsh’s, and Hill’s equations) on force and velocity data were compared via the Akaike Information Criterion. Results Expressed relative to the theoretical maximal force and velocity obtained from the linear model, force and velocity data ranged from 26.6 ± 6.6 to 96.0 ± 3.6% (16–99%) and from 8.3 ± 1.9 to 76.6 ± 7.0% (5–86%), respectively. Curvilinear and linear models showed very high fit (adjusted r 2 = 0.951–0.999; SEE = 17-159N). Despite curvilinear models better fitting the data, there was a ~ 99–100% chance the linear model best described the data. Conclusion A combination between goodness of fit, degrees of freedom and common sense (e.g., rational physiologically values) indicated linear modelling is preferable for describing the force–velocity relationship during acyclic lower-limb extensions, compared to curvilinear models. Notably, linearity appears maintained in conditions approaching theoretical maximal velocity. Using horizontal and assisted lower-limb extension to more broadly explore resistive/assistive conditions could improve reliability and accuracy of the force–velocity relationship and associated parameters.

High-strength steels are pre-heated in gas-fired furnaces before undergoing the open-die forging process. This process increases thermal oxidation on steel surfaces, affecting the interfacial friction between ingot and anvils during deformation. Two medium carbon high-strength steels with different nickel contents were oxidized, and the mechanical characteristics of oxide layers were investigated by micro and nano-indentation methods. It was found that the formed layers on high nickel steel had lower Young modulus and hardness compared to the steel with lower nickel. Finite element modeling and ring tests were used to assess oxide layers' effect on interfacial friction during deformation. The results demonstrated that oxide layers' formation decreased the interfacial friction and deformation load, acting as lubricants at high temperatures.

Abstract Background Achilles tendinopathy (AT) is a common overuse injury in running-related sports where patients experience pain and impaired function which can persist. A graded rehabilitation program has been successful in reducing pain and improving function to enable a return to sport. The aim of this study is to compare the effectiveness of a criteria-based rehabilitation program including strength and reactive strength targets, with a previously successful rehabilitation program on changes in pain and function using the Victorian Institute of Sport Assessment-Achilles (VISA-A) questionnaire. Secondary aims will be to assess changes in calf strength, reactive strength, and lower limb running and forward hop biomechanics over the course of a 12-week rehabilitation program, and long-term follow-up investigations. Methods Sixty eligible participants with chronic mid-portion AT who train in running-based sports will be included in this study. They will be randomly assigned to a group that will follow an evidence-based rehabilitation program of daily exercises with progression guided by symptoms or a group performing 3 high-intensity rehabilitation sessions per week with individualised load targets progressing to reactive strength exercises. Testing will take place at baseline, week 6 and 12. Plantar flexor peak torque will be measured using isokinetic dynamometry, reactive strength will be measured using a drop jump and lower limb biomechanical variables will be measured during a single leg forward hurdle hop test and treadmill running using 3D motion analysis. Follow-up interviews will take place at 6, 12 and 24 months after beginning the program which will assess patient participation in sport and possible re-injury. Discussion This is the first study to propose an individualised criteria-based graded rehabilitation program in patients in with chronic mid-portion Achilles tendinopathy where progression is guided by strength and reactive strength outcome measures. This study will provide a comprehensive assessment of plantar flexor strength, reactive strength and lower limb biomechanical variables in running and forward hopping with the VISA-A questionnaire as the primary outcome measure and long term post-intervention follow-up assessments performed. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov (ID: NCT04384874 ). Registered retrospectively on April 23rd 2020.

To directly compare five commonly used on-field systems (motorized linear encoder, laser, radar, global positioning system, and timing gates) during sprint acceleration to (i) measure velocity–time data, (ii) compute the main associated force–velocity variables, and (iii) assess their respective inter-trial reliability. Eighteen participants performed three 40 m sprints, during which five systems were used to simultaneously and separately record the body center of the mass horizontal position or velocity over time. Horizontal force–velocity mechanical outputs for the two best trials were computed following an inverse dynamic model and based on an exponential fitting of the position- or velocity-time data. Between the five systems, the maximal running velocity was close (7.99 to 8.04 m.s−1), while the time constant showed larger differences (1.18 to 1.29 s). Concurrent validity results overall showed a relative systematic error of 0.86 to 2.28% for maximum and theoretically maximal velocity variables and 4.78 to 12.9% for early acceleration variables. The inter-trial reliability showed low coefficients of variation (all

To train hamstring muscle specifically to sprint, strengthening programs should target exercises associated with horizontal force production and high levels of hamstring activity. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to analyze the correlation between force production capacities during sprinting and hamstring strengthening exercises, and to compare hamstring muscle activity during sprinting and these exercises. Fourteen track and field regional level athletes performed two maximal 50-m sprints and six strengthening exercises: Nordic hamstring exercises without and with hip flexion, Upright-hip-extension in isometric and concentric modalities, Standing kick, and Slide-leg-bridge. The sprinting horizontal force production capacity at low (F0) and high (V0) speeds was computed from running velocity data. Hamstring muscle performances were assessed directly or indirectly during isolated exercises. Hamstring muscle electromyographic activity was recorded during all tasks. Our results demonstrate substantially large to very large correlations between V0 and performances in the Upright-hip-extension in isometric (rs = 0.56; p = 0.040), Nordic hamstring exercise without hip flexion (rs = 0.66; p = 0.012) and with 90° hip flexion (rs = 0.73; p = 0.003), and between F0 and Upright-hip-extension in isometric (rs = 0.60; p = 0.028) and the Nordic hamstring exercise without hip flexion (rs = 0.59; p = 0.030). However, none of the test exercises activated hamstring muscles more than an average of 60% of the maximal activation during top-speed sprinting. In conclusion, training programs aiming to be sprint-specific in terms of horizontal force production could include exercises such as the Upright-hip-extension and the Nordic hamstring exercise, in addition to maximal sprinting activity, which is the only exercise leading to high levels of hamstring muscle activity.

AIMS:The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of hamstring eccentric (NHE) strength training versus sprint training programmed as complements to regular soccer practice, on sprint performance and its mechanical underpinnings, as well as biceps femoris long head (BFlh) architecture. METHODS:In this prospective interventional control study, sprint performance, sprint mechanics and BFlh architecture variables were compared before versus after six weeks of training during the first six preseason weeks, and between three different random match-pair groups of soccer players: "Soccer group" (n = 10), "Nordic group" (n = 12) and "Sprint group" (n = 10). RESULTS:For sprint performance and mechanics, small to large pre-post improvements were reported in "Sprint group" (except maximal running velocity), whereas only trivial to small negative changes were reported in "Soccer group" and "Nordic group". For BFlh architecture variables, "Sprint" group showed moderate increase in fascicle length compared to smaller augment for the "Nordic" group with trivial changes for "Soccer group". Only "Nordic" group presented small increases at pennation angle. CONCLUSIONS:The results suggest that sprint training was superior to NHE in order to increase BFlh fascicle length although only the sprint training was able to both provide a preventive stimulus (increase fascicle length) and at the same time improve both sprint performance and mechanics. Further studies with advanced imaging techniques are needed to confirm the validity of the findings.

BackgroundThe force-velocity-power (FVP) profile is used to describe dynamic force production capacities, which is of great interest in training high performance athletes. However, FVP may serve a new additional tool for cardiac rehabilitation (CR) of coronary artery disease (CAD) patients. The aim of this study was to compare the FVP profile between two populations: CAD patients vs. healthy participants (HP).MethodsTwenty-four CAD patients (55.8 ± 7.1 y) and 24 HP (52.4 ± 14.8 y) performed two sprints of 8 s on a Monark cycle ergometer with a resistance corresponding to 0.4 N/kg × body mass for men and 0.3 N/kg × body mass for women. The theoretical maximal force (F0) and velocity (V0), the slope of the force-velocity relationship (Sfv) and the maximal mechanical power output (Pmax) were determined.ResultsThe Pmax (CAD: 6.86 ± 2.26 W.kg–1 vs. HP: 9.78 ± 4.08 W.kg–1, p = 0.003), V0 (CAD: 5.10 ± 0.82 m.s–1 vs. HP: 5.79 ± 0.97 m.s–1, p = 0.010), and F0 (CAD: 1.35 ± 0.38 N.kg–1 vs. HP: 1.65 ± 0.51 N.kg–1, p = 0.039) were significantly higher in HP than in CAD. No significant difference appeared in Sfv (CAD: −0.27 ± 0.07 N.kg–1.m.s–1 vs. HS: −0.28 ± 0.07 N.kg–1.m.s–1, p = 0.541).ConclusionThe lower maximal power in CAD patients was related to both a lower V0 and F0. Physical inactivity, sedentary time and high cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk may explain this difference of force production at both high and low velocities between the two groups.

Comprehensive unsteady analysis of large size forged blocks heating characteristics in a gas-fired heat treatment furnace was carried out employing experimentally measured temperatures and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations. Heat and fluid flow interactions, consisting of turbulence, radiation and combustion, were simultaneously considered using k-ε, DO and EDM models in a three dimensional CFD model of the furnace, respectively. Applicability of the S2S radiation model was also evaluated to quantify the effect of participating medium and radiation view factor in the radiation heat transfer. Temperature measurements at several locations of an instrumented large size forged block and the furnace chamber were performed. A maximum deviation of about 7% was obtained between the model predictions and the experimental measurements. Results showed that despite the unloaded furnace had uniform temperature distribution, after loading, product surfaces experienced different heating rates, resulting in temperature differences up to 200 K. Findings were correlated with furnace geometry, vortical structures and flow circulations around the workpiece. Besides, S2S model demonstrating reliable results highlighted the importance of radiation view factor optimization in this application. The study could directly be employed for optimization of the heat treatment process of large size steel components. Keywords: Heat treatment, CFD simulation, Gas-fired furnace, Temperature measurement, Heating uniformity, Radiation modeling

AimsWe analysed the changes in force-velocity-power variables and jump performance in response to an individualized training program based on the force-velocity imbalance (FVimb). In particular, we investigated (i) the individual adaptation kinetics to reach the optimal profile and (ii) de-training kinetics over the three weeks following the end of the training program.MethodsSixty subjects were assigned to four sub-groups according to their initial FVimb: high or low force-deficit (FD) and high or low velocity-deficit (VD). The duration of training intervention was set so that each individual reached their "Optimal force-velocity (F-v) profile". Mechanical and performance variables were measured every 3 weeks during the program, and every week after the end of the individualized program.ResultsAll subjects in the FD sub-groups showed extremely large increases in maximal theoretical force output (+30±16.6% Mean±SD; ES = 2.23±0.28), FVimb reduction (-74.3±54.7%; ES = 2.17±0.27) and large increases in jump height (+12.4±7.6%; ES = 1.45±0.23). For the VD sub-groups, we observed moderate to extremely large increases in maximal theoretical velocity (+15.8±5.1%; ES = 2.72±0.29), FVimb reduction (-19.2±6.9%; ES = 2.36±0.35) and increases in jump height (+10.1±2.7%; ES = 0.93±0.09). The number of weeks needed to reach the optimal F-v profile (12.6 ± 4.6) was correlated to the magnitude of initial FVimb (r = 0.82, pConclusionsCollectively, these results provide useful insights into a more specific, individualized (i.e. based on the type and magnitude of FVimb) and accurate training prescription for jumping performance. Considering both training content and training duration together with FVimb may enable more individualized, specific and effective training monitoring and periodization.

This study aimed (i) to explore the relationship between vertical (jumping) and horizontal (sprinting) force–velocity–power (FVP) mechanical profiles in a large range of sports and levels of practice, and (ii) to provide a large database to serve as a reference of the FVP profile for all sports and levels tested. A total of 553 participants (333 men, 220 women) from 14 sport disciplines and all levels of practice participated in this study. Participants performed squat jumps (SJ) against multiple external loads (vertical) and linear 30–40 m sprints (horizontal). The vertical and horizontal FVP profile (i.e., theoretical maximal values of force (F0), velocity (v0), and power (Pmax)) as well as main performance variables (unloaded SJ height in jumping and 20-m sprint time) were measured. Correlations coefficient between the same mechanical variables obtained from the vertical and horizontal modalities ranged from −0.12 to 0.58 for F0, −0.31 to 0.71 for v0, −0.10 to 0.67 for Pmax, and −0.92 to −0.23 for the performance variables (i.e, SJ height and sprint time). Overall, results showed a decrease in the magnitude of the correlations for higher-level athletes. The low correlations generally observed between jumping and sprinting mechanical outputs suggest that both tasks provide distinctive information regarding the FVP profile of lower-body muscles. Therefore, we recommend the assessment of the FVP profile both in jumping and sprinting to gain a deeper insight into the maximal mechanical capacities of lower-body muscles, especially at high and elite levels.

Trekking and military missions generally consist of carrying heavy loads for extreme durations. These factors have been separately shown to be sources of neuromuscular (NM) fatigue and locomotor alterations. However, the question of their combined effects remains unresolved, and addressing this issue required a representative context.The aim was to investigate the effects of extreme-duration heavy load carriage on NM function and walking characteristics.Ten experienced infantrymen performed a 21-h simulated military mission (SMM) in a middle-mountain environment with equipment weighing ∼27 kg during battles and ∼43 kg during marches. NM function was evaluated for knee extensors (KE) and plantar flexors (PF) pre- and immediately post-SMM using isometric maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) measurement, neural electrical stimulation and surface EMG. The twitch-interpolation method was used to assess central fatigue. Peripheral changes were examined by stimulating the muscle in the relaxed state. The energy cost, mechanical work and spatio-temporal pattern of walking were also evaluated pre-/post-SMM on an instrumented treadmill in three equipment conditions: Sportswear, Battle and March.After the SMM, MVC declined by -10.2±3.6% for KE (P

In the present work, the impact of hot top geometry and thermal history on the Columnar-to-Equiaxed Transition (CET) point, of a 12 MT steel ingot was determined using finite element modeling. Experimental validation of the model was conducted on an industrial-size ingot, focusing on temperature, macrosegregation, and shrinkage microporosity. The anticipated Columnar-to-Equiaxed Transition point, influenced by the interaction of solid front rate, thermal gradient, and solid fraction was considered in the analysis. The findings revealed a shift in the CET position in new configurations, up to 56 mm, 63 mm, and 60 mm from the ingot wall in the bottom, middle, and top of the ingot, respectively. The changes are attributed to variations in the kinetics of solidification, particularly the solidification time. Thermo-mechanical phenomena, encompassing mold filling, cooling, solutal convection, and flow driven by shrinkage, were incorporated into the model to predict macrosegregation and the risk of porosity and shrinkage cavity formation for different hot top geometries. A criterion is proposed that allows mitigating macrosegregation and minimizing the risk of porosity and shrinkage cavity.

Computational Fluid Dynamics simulations were used to optimize heating elements placement on the walls of a large size electrical heat treatment furnace in order to reduce temperature gradients within the furnace and uneven temperatures on different faces of the blocks which could result in variabilities in final mechanical properties. Initial evaluations of different layouts highlighted the effectiveness of equipping two side walls. Subsequently, an optimal percentage of side wall coverage was identified through simulations and multi-objective evolutionary optimization. Genetic and pareto search algorithms yielded 10 % and 14.2 % as optimum values, respectively. Implementing an optimal coverage demonstrated significant reductions in surface temperature non-uniformity, surface-to-center temperature differential, and temperature differences between loaded blocks. These improvements suggest a potential for enhanced uniformity in mechanical properties across a batch of products. This approach presents a promising strategy for obtaining consistent and efficient heat treatment cycles in industrial heat treatment furnaces resulting in energy saving and improved product quality.

Recent improvements in elite running performances across all distances have been largely attributed to the introduction of advanced footwear technology (AFT), which features a curved and stiff plate working synergistically with a new generation of midsole foams demonstrating enhanced resilience and compliance. These recent improvements appear to be considerably more pronounced in women's events, highlighted by improvements in road racing world records by an average of 3.7% (range: 2.6%–5.2%) compared to mean progressions of 1.5% (range: 1.3%–1.9%) in the same men's events. Although there is a growing body of research investigating the mechanisms underpinning running performance enhancements derived from AFT, there remains no explanation for potential sex-based differences in their benefits. We overview the currently available evidence and highlight why the recent direction of AFT research provides a barrier to progress by focusing primarily on male athletes. We subsequently provide our perspective on why women may be benefiting from the new generation of shoes more than men, suggest potential mechanisms leading to hypotheses that need to be further investigated in upcoming studies, and finally propose that factors outside of footwear innovation may have concurrently driven the recently observed performance evolutions.

Development of cracks along the center axis of large high strength steel bars commonly occurs during the forging and leads to excessive part rejections. The present investigation aims to develop a better understanding of the evolution of stress-strain states during the forging operation and in particular the effect of deformation path illustrated by die geometry, on the evolution of damage during the cogging of an AISI H13 steel. Hot compression and tensile tests were performed using Gleeble-3800 thermo-mechanical simulator to develop the optimum material model which was then implemented in the finite element (FE) code Forge NxT 3.2® using a developed user subroutine. Normalized Cockcroft and Latham damage criterion and maximum shear stress (Tresca's) theory of failure were used to predict the damage and failure in the center axis of the shaft through FE analysis with three different die shapes: concave, flat, and convex. A comparative study between the three die geometries was conducted to quantify the effects of each of them on the sensitivity to central burst damage. FE model was validated using industrial data. The lowest and highest damage values were found to occur in the case of cogging with concave and flat die, respectively. The coefficient of variation (CoV) is employed as a measure of heterogeneity and it was found that the concave die provides more uniform deformation and most favorable results for the cogging compared to the flat and convex dies. The novel approach, application of concave die successfully implemented at the industrial scale cogging.

Objective To test whether a musculoskeletal multifactorial and individualised hamstring muscle injury (HMI) risk reduction programme could reduce HMI risk in professional football.Methods We conducted a prospective cohort study in Finnish premier football league teams, with the 2019 season used as a control and an intervention conducted in the 2021 season. Screening was conducted to provide individualised programmes and monitor progress. Cox regression with hazard ratio (HR) was used with HMI as outcome and season as explanatory variable, including all players for primary analysis and those who performed the two seasons for secondary analysis.Results 90 players were included in the control and 87 in the intervention seasons; 31 players performed in the 2 seasons. Twenty HMIs were recorded during the control and 16 during the intervention seasons. Cox regression analyses revealed that HMI risk at any given time was not significantly different between control and intervention seasons (for all players: HR 0.77 (95% CI 0.39 to 1.51), p=0.444; for the 31 players: HR 0.32 (95% CI 0.01 to 1.29), p=0.110)). For the 31 players, the HMI burden was significantly reduced in the intervention compared with the control season (RR 0.67 (95% CI 0.53 to 0.85)). Higher compliance with knee strength training, maximal velocity exposure and lower performance reductions in maximal theoretical horizontal force and knee flexor force were associated with lower HMI incidence.Conclusions Although the primary analysis did not reveal any significant effect of the intervention to reduce HMI risk in professional football, the programme was feasible, and additional secondary analyses showed a significant association between the intervention and lower HMI burden, incidence and risk.

Background Elite track and field sprint performances have reached a point of stability as we near the limits of human physiology, and further significant improvements may require technological intervention. Following the widely reported performance benefits of new advanced footwear technology (AFT) in road-running events, similar innovations have since been applied to sprint spikes in hope of providing similar performance enhancing benefits. However, it is not yet clear based on current evidence whether there have been subsequent improvements in sprint performance. Therefore, the aims of this study were to establish if there have been recent year-to-year improvements in the times of the annual top 100 and top 20 athletes in the men’s and women’s sprint events, and to establish if there is an association between the extensive use of AFT and potential recent improvements in sprint performances. Methods For the years 2016–19 and 2021–2022, the season best performances of the top 100 athletes in each sprint event were extracted from the World Athletics Top lists. Independent t-tests with Holm corrections were performed using the season’s best performance of the top 100 and top 20 athletes in each year to identify significant differences between years for each sprint discipline. Following the classification of shoes worn by the top 20 athletes in each event during their annual best race (AFT or non-AFT), separate linear mixed-model regressions were performed to determine the influence of AFT on performance times. Results For the top 100 and top 20 athletes, there were no significant differences year-to-year in any sprint event prior to the release of AFT (2016–2019). There were significant differences between AFT years (2021 or 2022) and pre-AFT years (2016–2019) in eight out of 10 events. These differences ranged from a 0.40% improvement (men’s 100 m) to a 1.52% improvement (women’s 400 m hurdles). In the second analysis, multiple linear mixed model regressions revealed that the use of AFT was associated with improved performance in six out of ten events, including the men’s and women’s 100 m, women’s 200 m, men’s 110 m hurdles, women’s 100 m hurdles and women’s 400 m hurdles (estimate range: −0.037 – 0.521, p =

The influence of hot-top designs with different heat capacities on the distribution of positive and negative macrosegregation was investigated on a 12 metric tonne (MT) cast ingot made using Cr-Mo low-alloy steel. The three-dimensional finite element modeling code THERCAST® was used to simulate the thermo-mechanical phenomena associated with the solidification process, running from filling the mold until complete solidification. The model was validated on an industrial-scale ingot and then utilized to evaluate the influence of the thermal history of the hot-top, a crucial component in the cast ingot setup. This assessment aimed to comprehend changes in solidification time, temperature, and heat flux—all of which contribute to the determination of macrosegregation severity. The results showed that preheating the hot-top had a minor effect on solidification time, while modifications of thermal conductivity in the hot-top region increased the solidification time by 31%, thereby significantly affecting the macrosegregation patterns. The results are discussed and interpreted in terms of the fundamental mechanisms governing the kinetics of solidification and macrosegregation phenomena.

The rules and the technical aspect of combat sports make it difficult to determine key performance indicators. Therefore, the assessment of striking sports discipline-specific key components may be relevant. This study aims to present a test assessing specifically the fighters striking force-velocity (F-V) capabilities. 10 MMA fighters performed FV (two-point (TP) and multiple-point (MP) methods) and fatigue tests using the landmine punch exercise (LPE) which is considered a specific exercise for striking combat sports. A high within-subject intra-session and inter-session reliability and reproducibility were found for the FV profiles parameters and the fatigue test (most CVs0.67, ES < 0.2 for F0, V0, Pmax, Sfv, Ppeak, Pmean, Pmin and FI% and r > 0.9). Moreover, the TP and MP methods showed high validity and agreement (r >0.88 and ES

The aim of this pilot study was to analyze the potential association of a novel multifactorial hamstring screening protocol with the occurrence of hamstring muscle injuries (HMI) in professional football. 161 professional male football players participated in this study (age: 24.6 ± 5.36 years; body-height: 180 ± 7.07 cm; body-mass: 77.2 ± 7.70 kg). During the pre- and mid-season, players performed a screening protocol consisting of 11 tests aimed to evaluate their performance in regards to four main musculoskeletal categories: posterior chain strength, sprint mechanical output, lumbopelvic control and range of motion. Univariable cox regression analysis showed no significant association between the isolated test results and new HMI occurrence during the season (n = 17) (p > 0.05). When including injuries that took place between the pre- and mid-season screenings (~90 days), maximal theoretical horizontal force (F0) was significantly associated with higher HMI risk between pre- and mid-season evaluations (n = 14, hazard ratio; 4.02 (CI95% 1.08 to 15.0, p = 0.04). This study identified that 1) no single screening test was sufficient to identify players at risk of HMI within the entire season, while 2) low F0 was associated with increased risk of HMI when occurring closer to the moment of screening. The present results support the potential relevance of additionally including frequent F0 testing for HMI risk reduction management. Replication studies are needed in larger cohorts for more accurate interpretations on “univariable and multivariable levels levels. Finally, future studies should explore whether improving F0 is relevant within a multifactorial HMI risk reduction approach.

The influence of stacking patterns, through the different spacer and skid sizes, on the transient temperature distribution uniformity of large-size forgings in a 112-m3 electrical heat treatment furnace was investigated by conducting CFD simulations and real-scale experimental validation. A 3D CFD model of the electrical furnace was generated, including a heat-treating chamber, axial flow fans, large size blocks, skids, and spacers. Real-scale temperature measurements on instrumented test blocks during the heat treatment process were carried out to validate the CFD simulations. Results indicated that the CFD model was capable enough to determine the transient temperature evolution of the blocks with a maximum average deviation of about 6.62% compared to the experimental measurements. It was found that significant temperature non-uniformities of up to 379 K on the surfaces of the blocks due to the non-optimum stacking pattern were experienced by the blocks. Such non-uniformities could be reduced between 24% to 32% if well-adapted spacer and skid sizes were used in the stacking configurations. Based on simulation results and experimental validation work, optimum spacer and skid sizes for uniform temperature distribution were proposed for different stacking patterns.

Open-die forging is a critical step in the manufacture of large numbers of components used in the transportation and energy industries. Dynamic recrystallization, dynamic transformation, and dynamic precipitation take place during the hot deformation process and significantly affect microstructure conditioning, which ultimately influences the service properties of the component. In the present work, using a Gleeble 3800 thermomechanical simulator, the open-die forging of a large-size ingot made of a modified AISI 6140 medium carbon high-strength steel is investigated. Deformation temperatures ranging from 950°C to 1,250°C and strain rates ranging from 0.01 to 1 s−1, representative of the actual process, are considered in the analysis. The generated true stress–true strain curves are used as a basis for the development of a constitutive model predicting the occurrence of softening and strengthening phenomena as a function of thermomechanical conditions. The corresponding activation energy is determined to be about 374 kJ mol−1 and is compared against the values reported in the literature for other high-strength steels. Dynamic recrystallization kinetics is studied using the t50 model, and the influence of temperature and strain rate is quantified and discussed. The interaction between dynamic precipitation and dynamic recrystallization is discussed, and the deformation conditions under which such interactions occur are determined. The thermomechanical results are validated by microstructure examination, including laser confocal microscopy, field emission scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive spectroscopy. The present study focuses on reproducing the deformation cycle applied during the open-die forging process of a vanadium-containing high-strength steel used in the industry with special attention to the interaction between dynamic recrystallization and precipitation processes.